Organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyl residues in foodstuffs and human tissues from china: status of contamination, historical trend, and human dietary exposure

Exposure to pesticides in Chile and its relationship with carcinogenic potential: a review

Background

The widespread application of pesticides in agriculture and the consequent heightened human exposure to these potentially harmful substances present considerable environmental and health risks. The potential link to cancer is particularly concerning, underscoring the urgent need for more sustainable and health-conscious agricultural practices. Pesticides are pervasive global contaminants, with exposure occurring through various routes. Improper use is associated with genotoxicity, neurobehavioral problems, thyroid dysfunction, reproductive issues, and cancer, among other deleterious damages. While pesticide exposure is evident in Chile, a direct link to cancer remains uncertain.

Objective

To examine the scientific evidence on pesticides exposure in the environment and human populations, and its relationship with cancer in Chilean territory.

Methods

The search for original articles was performed in international peer-reviewed scientific databases, including Scopus, Web of Science (WoS), and PubMed Advanced Search Builder. Following the PRISMA extension for review guidelines, the search included studies on environmental pesticide exposure, human biomarker assessments, experimental investigations, and the potential pesticide-cancer associations in Chile. Foreign studies, systematic reviews, and meta-analyses were excluded.

Results

Among the 83 qualifying studies conducted between 1996 and 2024, elevated pesticide exposure risks were documented, with 71% indicating high concentrations that may pose health risk. Additionally, 20% of studies reported significant chlorinated compounds, including organochlorines (OCs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), while 79.5% identified carcinogenic to humans classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer. The review emphasizes the urgent need to update pesticide-related regulations in Chile, including implementing bans or restrictions on carcinogenic pesticides and establishing stricter standards for allowable pesticide residue levels in food.

Conclusion

Long-term epidemiological studies are essential to establishing concrete links between pesticide exposure and specific types of cancer. Additionally, investigating epigenetic markers associated with pesticide exposure, especially in occupational settings, is critical. Furthermore, allocating resources and prioritizing further research is fundamental, particularly in regions with substantial agricultural exposure.

Phage Mediated Biocontrol: A Promising Green Solution for Sustainable Agriculture

In the current scenario of growing world population, limited cultivable land resources, plant diseases, and pandemics are some of the major factors responsible for declining global food security. Along with meeting the food demand, the maintenance of food quality is also required to ensure healthy consumption and marketing. In agricultural fields, pest infestations and bacterial diseases are common causes of crop damage, leading to massive yield losses. Conventionally, antibiotics and several pesticides have been used to manage and control these plant pathogens. However, the overuse of antibiotics and pesticides has led to the emergence of resistant strains of pathogenic bacteria. The bacteriophages are the natural predators of bacteria and are host-specific in their action. Therefore, the use of bacteriophages for the biocontrol of pathogenic bacteria is serving as a sustainable and green solution in crop protection and production. In this review, we have discussed the important plant pathogens and their impact on plant health and yield loss. Further, we have abridged the role of bacteriophages in the protection of crops from bacterial disease by discussing various greenhouse and field trials. Finally, we have discussed the impact of bacteriophages on the plant microbiome, phage resistance, and legal challenges in the registration and commercial production of bacteriophage-based biopesticides.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12088-024-01204-x.

Methoxychlor induces oxidative stress and impairs early embryonic development in pigs

Introduction: Methoxychlor (MXC) is an organochlorine pesticide (OCP) that was formerly used worldwide as an insecticide against pests and mosquitoes. However, MXC is not biodegradable and has lipophilic characteristics; thus, it accumulates in organisms and affects reproductive function. MXC, as an estrogenic compound, promotes oxidative stress, induces oxidative stress damage to ovarian follicles, and causes miscarriages and stillbirths in females. In this research endeavor, our primary objective was to explore the ramifications of MXC regarding the developmental processes occurring during the initial stages of embryogenesis in pigs. Methods: In this study, we counted the blastocyst rate of early embryos cultured in vitro. We also examined the reactive oxygen species level, glutathione level, mitochondrial membrane potential, mitochondrial copy number and ATP level in four-cell stage embryos. Finally, apoptosis and DNA damage in blastocyst cells, as well as pluripotency-related and apoptosis-related genes in blastocyst cells were detected. The above experiments were used to evaluate the changes of MXC damage on early parthenogenetic embryo development. Results and Discussion: The results showed that early embryos exposed to MXC had a significantly lower cleavage rate, blastocyst rate, hatching rate, and total cell count compared with the control group. It was also of note that MXC not only increased the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), but also decreased the mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) and mitochondrial copy number during the development of early embryos. In addition, after MXC treatment, blastocyst apoptosis and DNA damage were increased, decreased cell proliferation, and the expression of pluripotency-related genes SOX2, NANOG, and OCT4 was down-regulated, while the expression of apoptosis-related genes BAX/BCL-2 and Caspase9 was up-regulated. Our results clearly show that MXC can have deleterious effects on the developmental processes of early porcine embryos, establishing the toxicity of MXC to the reproductive system. In addition, the study of this toxic effect may lead to greater concern about pesticide residues in humans and the use of safer pesticides, thus potentially preventing physiological diseases caused by chemical exposure.

Quantification of insecticides in commercial seafood sold in East Asian markets: risk assessment for consumers

The extraction of 21 insecticides and 5 metabolites was performed using an optimized and validated QuEChERS protocol that was further used for the quantification (GC-MS/MS) in several seafood matrices (crustaceans, bivalves, and fish-mudskippers). Seven species, acquired from Hong Kong and Macao wet markets (a region so far poorly monitored), were selected based on their commercial importance in the Indo-Pacific region, market abundance, and affordable price. Among them, mussels from Hong Kong, together with mudskippers from Macao, presented the highest insecticide concentrations (median values of 30.33 and 23.90 ng/g WW, respectively). Residual levels of fenobucarb, DDTs, HCHs, and heptachlors were above the established threshold (10 ng/g WW) for human consumption according to the European and Chinese legislations: for example, in fish-mudskippers, DDTs, fenobucarb, and heptachlors (5-, 20- and tenfold, respectively), and in bivalves, HCHs (fourfold) had higher levels than the threshold. Risk assessment revealed potential human health effects (e.g., neurotoxicity), especially through fish and bivalve consumption (non-carcinogenic risk; ΣHQ_LT > 1), and a potential concern of lifetime cancer risk development through the consumption of fish, bivalves, and crustaceans collected from these markets (carcinogenic risk; ΣTCR > 10^-4). Since these results indicate polluted regions, where the seafood is collected/produced, a strict monitoring framework should be implemented in those areas to improve food quality and safety of seafood products.

To what extent are filter feeder elasmobranchs exposed to marine pollution? A systematic review

Filter feeding elasmobranchs may be considered as biological indicators of marine pollution, despite most of these species are under some degree of extinction risk. Among threats to this taxonomic group, marine pollution might represent an additional concern for their survival. In this review, a comprehensive systematic search of scientific literature on pollutants in filter feeding elasmobranchs was conducted to evaluate the bioaccumulation patterns, and risk for human consumers. We found that, despite an increasing trend in the number of published studies, the geographical coverage is still very limited and most of the studies focused solely on trace elements (70.8%). Among sharks, Rhincodon typus was the most represented species (66.7%), while Mobula mobular the most studied ray species (41.7%). Comparing the levels of pollutants in filter feeders between ocean basins, this review highlighted that Hg, As and Cd levels are mostly higher in those areas affected by both strong natural and anthropogenic source of emissions, such as the Indian Ocean. With regards to OCs, ΣPCB levels in muscle of C. maximus were between 4.3 and 50.5 μg kg^-1 ww, highlighting a persistent contamination of PCB in the Mediterranean Sea. Some species exceeded the maximum allowable limits for foodstuff consumption for As, Cd and Pb. A total of 77.8% of the analyzed species exceeded the Environmental Quality Standards for Hg, while they were always below the EQS_biota for HCB, PBDEs, PFOS and DDT. Given their feeding mechanism that continuously samples the marine environment, further investigations are urgently needed to determine not only the extent of contaminant exposure in different hotspot locations but also the risks posed to the elasmobranch health.

Modified matrix solid phase dispersion-HPLC method for determination of pesticide residue in vegetables and their impact on human health: A risk assessment

The use of pesticides is unavoidable in agricultural practices. This class of chemicals is highly toxic for the environment as well as for humans. The present work was carried out to assess the presence of some pesticides (diafenthiuron, lufenuron, azoxystrobin, difenoconazole, and chlorothalonil) residues in five of the very commonly used vegetables (eggplant, capsicum, apple gourd, cauliflower, and sponge gourd). Matrix solid phase dispersion (MSPD) technique was used to extract the pesticides and subsequently their quantification was performed through high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled to ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) detector. The elution was accomplished at wavelength of 254 nm by injecting 20 µL of standards or samples into chromatographic system. The mobile phase consisted of acetonitrile and water (80:20 v/v), where the flow rate was adjusted at 1.0 ml/min. The linearity was good (R ² ≥ 0.994) over a concentration range from 20 to 100 μg/ml for the investigated pesticides. The low detection limits showed a quite appreciable potential of the method to detect (1.12-1.61 μg/L) and quantify (3.73-5.36 μg/ml) the pesticides under study. The accuracy was demonstrated in terms of percent recovery which ranged between 88.5% and 116.9% for all the pesticides under investigation. These results justify the suitability of the technique for the intended purpose. The concentration of difenoconazole in apple gourd (20.97 mg/kg), cauliflower (10.28 mg/kg), and sponge gourd (40.32 mg/kg) whereas diafenthiuron in cauliflower (0.66 mg/kg) exceeded the maximum residue level (MRLs) as defined by Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and the World Health Organization (FAO/WHO). Target hazard quotient (THQ) values of difenoconazole and diafenthiuron (except for adults) were more than one which indicates the significant effect on human health on consumption of apple gourd, cauliflower, and sponge gourd.

Long-term pollution by chlordecone of tropical volcanic soils in the French West Indies: New insights and improvement of previous predictions

Chlordecone (CLD), was widely applied in banana fields in the French West Indies from 1972 to 1993. The WISORCH model was constructed to assess soil contamination by CLD and estimated that it lasts from 100 to 600 years, depending on leaching intensity and assuming no degradation. However, recent studies demonstrated that CLD is degraded in the environment, hence questioning the reliability of previous estimations. This paper shows how to improve the model and provides insights into the long-term dissipation of CLD. In-situ observations were made in nearly 2545 plots between 2001 and 2020, and 17 plots were sampled at two dates. Results of soil analyses showed an unexpected 4-fold decrease in CLD concentrations in the soil, in contrast to simulations made using the first version of WISORCH at the time. Neither erosion, nor CLD leaching explained these discrepancies. In a top-down modeling approach, these new observations of CLD concentrations led us to implement a new dissipation process in the WISORCH model that corresponds to a DT50 dissipation half-life of 5 years. The new version of the improved model allowed us to update the prediction of the persistence of soil pollution, with soil decontamination estimated for the 2070s. This development calls for re-evaluation of soil pollution status. Further validation of the new version of WISORCH is needed so it can contribute to crop management on contaminated soil.

Occurrence of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in the sea anemone Bunodosoma zamponii, sediments and seawater from the southwestern Atlantic

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are persistent and bioaccumulable organic compounds. The occurrence of PCBs was assessed in two populations of the intertidal sea anemone Bunodosoma zamponii living under different anthropogenic strains. One location was in vicinity to a wastewater plant (Las Delicias, LD), and the other was a preserved location chosen as a reference site (Punta Cantera, PC). Anemone populations were sampled 4 times (spring, summer, autumn and winter) throughout a year, in addition to seawater and sediment from those areas. PCB loadings ranged from 2.89 to 79.41 ng L^-1 in seawater samples and from 0.07 to 6.61 ng g^-1 dry weight in sediment samples. Total PCB levels ranged from 0.22 to 14.94 and 2.79 to 24.69 ng g^-1 wet weight in anemones from PC and LD, respectively. PCBs concentrations in anemones from LD were significantly greater than PC during spring, summer and winter. The congeners 18 and 44 prevailed in seawater samples, 44 and 52 in sediment and 18 and 132+153 in anemones. Redundancy analysis integrated PCB levels from all matrixes and bolstered contrast between sampling sites. Seasonality was also a relevant factor since during winter PCB loading was greater in sediment and anemone samples, coincident with the rainiest season. Disparity between sites could be due to LD's proximity to the wastewater plant, effect of littoral drift direction and/or asymmetries in anemones physiological condition.

Estimating the dietary exposure and risk of persistent organic pollutants in China: A national analysis

Substantial heterogeneities have been found in previous estimations of the risk from dietary exposures to persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in China, mainly due to spatiotemporal variations. To comprehensively evaluate the dietary risks of POPs listed in the Stockholm Convention, more than 27,580 data records from 753 reports published over the last three decades were examined. Respectively, for various food categories, the results obtained for the range of mean concentrations of POPs are as follows: total dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes (DDTs: 1.4-27.1 μg/kg), hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs: 1.8-29.3 μg/kg), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs: 0.046-2.82 μg/kg), polychorinated biphenyls (PCBs: 0.05-7.57 μg/kg), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD&Fs: 2.9-210 pg toxic equivalent (TEQ)/kg), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA: 0.02-0.97 μg/kg), perfluoroctane sulfonate (PFOS: 0.00082-2.76 μg/kg) and short-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs: 64-348.92 μg/kg). Temporal decreasing trends were observed for DDTs, HCHs, PBDEs, PCDD&Fs, and PFOA, with no significant change for other POPs. Meanwhile, the estimated daily intake for adults were 75.2 ± 43.6 ng/kg/day for DDTs, 123 ± 87 ng/kg/day for HCHs, 0.37 ± 0.17 pg TEQ/kg/day for PCDD&Fs, 17.8 ± 9.5 ng/kg/day for PCBs, 3.3 ± 1.8 ng/kg/day for PBDEs, 3.6 ± 1.9 ng/kg/day for PFOA, 3.3 ± 2.0 ng/kg/day for PFOS, and 2.5 ± 1.6 μg/kg/day for SCCPs. Furthermore, non-carcinogenic risks were the highest for PCBs (0.89) and PCDD&Fs (0.53), followed by PFOA (0.18), PFOS (0.17), HCHs (0.062), SCCPs (0.025), DDTs (0.0075), and PBDEs (0.00047). These findings illustrated that exposure to POPs declined due to the control policies implemented in China, while the cumulative risk of POPs was still higher than 1, indicating continuous efforts are required to mitigate associated contamination.

Occurrence, spatial distribution, source, and ecological risk assessment of organochlorine pesticides in Dongting Lake, China

The occurrence, distribution, sources, and ecological risks of organochlorine pesticides in Dongting Lake of China were investigated. The average concentrations of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in 22 surface water samples and 14 sediment samples were 90.07 ng/L and 80.65 ng/g dw, respectively. Sixteen types of OCPs, dominated by HCHs, DDTs and heptachlor, were detected in the Dongting Lake. The relationships of OCP residues between Dongting Lake and its tributary rivers have been discussed and the hydraulic connections with the Yangtze River and the Three Gorges Dam (TGD) were also considered. Results showed that the shortage of runoff, earlier dry season, and reduction of sediment deposition extremely deteriorated the hydraulic conditions, magnified the water cycle, and restrained the self-purification of OCPs. The ∑OCPs in surface water were concentrated in the inlets of Yangtze River, Lishui River, Zishui River, Yuanshui River, and Xiangjiang River. Moreover, the ∑OCPs in the outlet of the Yangtze River also maintained a high level, indicating that OCPs posed adverse effects on the Yangtze River. Risk assessments of OCPs in the surface water of Dongting Lake were estimated according to available water quality guidelines and health risk assessment models. The results indicated that OCPs in the surface water of Dongting Lake were safe for aquatic organisms and human health. In addition, sediment quality guidelines (SQGs) were also applied to evaluate the potential ecotoxicological risks of OCPs in sediments. The results presented that contaminants of γ-HCH; o,p'-DDD; and dieldrin in sediment had adverse effects on benthic organisms, indicating that fundamental solutions should be proposed to control OCP contamination in Dongting Lake.

Breast and prostate glands affected by environmental substances (Review)

Environmental endocrine disruptor chemicals are substances that can alter the homeostasis of the endocrine system in living organisms. They can be released from several products used in daily activities. Once in the organism, they can disrupt the endocrine function by mimicking or blocking naturally occurring hormones due to their similar chemical structure. This endocrine disruption is the most important cause of the well‑known hormone‑associate types of cancer. Additionally, it is decisive to determine the susceptibility of each organ to these compounds. Therefore, the present review aimed to summarize the effect of different environmental substances such as bisphenol A, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane and polychlorinated biphenyls in both the mammary and the prostate tissues. These organs were chosen due to their association with the hormonal system and their common features in carcinogenic mechanisms. Outcomes derived from the present review may provide evidence that should be considered in future debates regarding the effects of endocrine disruptors on carcinogenesis.

Human health risk assessment of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) pesticide residues in fruits and vegetables in Nigeria

The residues of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes (DDTs) and hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs) in forty-eight (48) composite fruit and vegetable samples (carrot, cucumber, tomato, and watermelon) were qualitatively and quantitatively determined using gas chromatography equipped with electron capture detector (GC-ECD). Safety indices such as the estimated average daily intake (EADI), cancer benchmark concentration (CBC), hazard quotient (HQ) and index (HI), and hazard ratio (HR) were also estimated. Results showed the predominance of HCH and its isomers in the fruits and vegetables as compared with the DDTs. The most predominant HCHs in all the fruits was α-HCH with mean concentrations of 2.704 ± 2.488 mg kg-1 (carrot), 1.536 ± 1.036 mg kg-1 (cucumber), 6.814 ± 2.967 mg kg-1 (tomato), and 9.241 ± 2.735 mg kg-1 (watermelon). The analysis showed that the levels of pesticide residues detected in 25 to 100% of the fruit and vegetable samples were above the UK/European Commission Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs). The non-carcinogenic health risk estimates showed that only α-HCH in tomatoes and watermelon had HQ > 1 which indicates the possibility of systemic health risk in children consumers. The carcinogenic health risk showed that only α-HCH and γ-HCH in children and α-HCH in adults had HR > 1 for tomato and watermelon which implies the possibility of carcinogenic health risk from its consumption. It is therefore paramount to institute a policy and regulatory framework for regular monitoring of pesticide residues in fruits and vegetables in Nigeria in order to ensure food safety for consumers and protect human health.

Pesticides in human milk collected from Jinhua, China: Levels, influencing factors and health risk assessment

In China, many studies have been carried out on pesticide residues in human milk, yet all of them are on organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and mostly focused on large, economically developed cities. In this study, 27 pesticides including OCPs, pyrethroid pesticides (PYRs) and organophosphate pesticides (OPPs) in human milk were investigated in Jinhua, an inland and medium sized city in China. Method based on QuEChERS extraction and gas chromatography-mass spectrometer (GC-MS) determination was adopted to analyze the above pesticide residues. The influencing factors as well as the health risks were also evaluated. Results show that PYRs and OPPs in human milk samples were both undetectable. Regarding OCPs, the detection rate of hexachlorobenzene (HCB), β-hexachlorocyclohexane (β-HCH) and p,p'-dichlorodiphenyl-dichloroethylene (p,p'-DDE) were 83.6%, 36.4% and 58.2%, respectively, and their mean value were 29.4, 32.0 and 85.2 ng/g lipid, respectively. p,p'-DDE levels in human milk was significantly (p < 0.05) related to maternal age, but no association was detected between OCPs residues and other factors (living environment, dietary habit, living style, etc.), suggesting that OCPs in human milk in Jinhua were originated from nonspecific source. All estimated daily intake of pesticides (EDI_pesticides) by infants were under the guideline suggested by Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and China Ministry of Health (CMH). Yet 9% of EDIs_HCB and 16% of EDIs_HCHs exceeded the guideline recommended by Health Canada. The associations between DDE residues and the delivery way as well as HCBs residues and the birth weight were seemly significant, yet the significance disappeared when consider age or gestational age as a cofounder, indicating that OCPs residue in mother's body in Jinhua has no obvious influence on fetus development and the delivery way.

Bioaccumulation and human health risk assessment of DDT and its metabolites (DDTs) in yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) and their prey from the South China Sea

DDTs were detected in yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares, 92.1-221.8 ng‧g^-1 lipid weight) and their prey (54.9-93.5 ng‧g^-1 lipid weight) from the South China Sea (SCS). DDT levels reported in this study were lower than those of the previous studies indicated the recent mitigation of DDT contamination in the SCS. Higher DDT levels were observed in fat abdominal muscle than lean dorsal muscle in adult yellowfin tuna. Meanwhile, DDT levels in adult yellowfin tuna were higher than the young ones. The composition profiles of DDT and its metabolites suggested DDTs in fish in the SCS were mainly derived from the historical use of technical DDTs. DDTs were biomagnified through food chains with the trophic magnification factor of 2.5. Risk assessment results indicated that dietary exposure to DDTs through lifetime fish consumption from the SCS would pose little cancer and noncarcinogenic risk to coastal residents.

Presence and Health Risks of Obsolete and Emerging Pesticides in Paddy Rice and Soil from Thailand and China

Organochlorine (OCPs) and organophosphorus pesticides (OPPs) have been intensively applied in rice paddy field farming to control pest infestation and increase the yield. In this study, we investigated the presence of organochlorine and organophosphorus pesticides in paddy rice and soil from rice plantations in Thailand and China. According to concentration and distribution of OCPs, the most abundant OCPs residues in rice and soil from Thailand and China were dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane and hexachlorocyclohexanes. The OPPs of methidathion, carbophenothion, chlorpyrifos, and diazinon were common to Thailand and China in both types of samples. The detection frequency of multiple types of these pesticides was greater than 50% of total samples. The relative concentration of some OPPs residues in rice and soil from Thailand and China were significantly different from each other (p < 0.0083), whereas, no significant difference was observed for the relative concentration of OCPs residues in rice and soil from both countries, except for HCHs (p < 0.05). Bioaccumulation factors of OCPs between rice and soil samples indicated that OCPs and OPPs in soil could accumulate in rice. The carcinogenic and non- carcinogenic risks of OCPs and OPPs seem to be in the safe range as recommended by the European Union.

Correlates of organochlorine pesticide plasma concentrations among reproductive-aged black women

BACKGROUND

Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) are lipophilic persistent organic pollutants associated with adverse health outcomes. Black women have higher body burdens compared with other U.S. populations and research on their correlates is limited.

METHODS

Using baseline data from a prospective cohort study of Black women aged 23-35 years from the Detroit, Michigan metropolitan area (enrolled 2010-2012), we examined correlates of plasma concentrations of the following OCPs: dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (p,p'-DDE), hexachlorobenzene (HCB), oxychlordane, and trans-nonachlor. At enrollment, we collected non-fasting blood samples from 742 participants. We also collected data on demographic, behavioral, dietary, occupational, and medical history factors via self-administered questionnaires, telephone interviews, and in-person clinic visits. We fit linear regression models to calculate percent (%) differences across categories of each correlate and 95% confidence intervals (CIs).

RESULTS

In models adjusted for all other correlates, a 5-year increase in age was associated with 24% higher oxychlordane (95% CI: 12%, 38%) and 26% higher trans-nonachlor (95% CI: 12%, 42%) plasma concentrations. Heavy alcohol use was associated with 7-9% higher plasma concentrations of p,p'-DDE, oxychlordane, and trans-nonachlor. Current smoking was associated with 10-19% higher plasma concentrations of all four OCPs, and was highest for current smokers of ≥10 cigarettes/day (% differences ranged from 22 to 29%). Compared with having never been breastfed during infancy, having been breastfed for ≥3 months was associated with 15% higher concentrations of p,p'-DDE (95% CI: 6%, 25%), 14% higher oxychlordane (95% CI: 5%, 24%), and 15% higher trans-nonachlor (95% CI: 5%, 27%). Consumption of ≥5 vs. ≤2 glasses/day of tap or bottled water was associated with 8-15% higher plasma concentrations of all four OCPs, and was highest for trans-nonachlor (% difference: 15%; 95% CI: 6%, 26%). No other dietary predictors were appreciably associated with plasma OCP concentrations. Obesity, parity, higher birth order, and longer lactation duration were inversely associated with plasma OCP concentrations.

CONCLUSIONS

In Black U.S. women of reproductive age, older age was an important correlate of plasma OCP concentrations. Exposure to OCPs earlier in life appears to contribute to current blood concentrations. In addition, tobacco, alcohol, and drinking water may be important sources of exposure.

Occurrence of organochlorine pesticide residues in biological and environmental matrices in Africa: A two-decade review

The widespread use of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), essentially for the control of insects and the cultivation of food crops, has led to the pollution of ecosystems. Despite being banned several years ago in the developed world, extensive use remains ongoing on the African continent. This review summarizes the occurrence, distributions, sources, and trends of OCPs in seven environmental matrices (atmosphere, water, sediments, soils, biota, human fluids and food products) in Africa. Findings in this review revealed that α-HCH, β-HCH dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDTs), and endosulfans were the most persistent OCP residues in the African environment, particularly DDTs in breast milk samples occurring in levels above the WHO stipulated limits, thus indicating a call for concern. Also, there was paucity of data available on OCP concentrations in ambient air. Future research efforts should prioritize testing these pollutants in the atmosphere, especially in countries where they are used more frequently. While most POP analysis studies used gas chromatography coupled to electron capture detector or mass spectrometer, it is recommended that further studies should use more sensitive analytical techniques such as gas chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS), or gas chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry (GC-HRMS). These instruments allow for the detection of secondary and tertiary metabolites, especially those found in water, biota and food products, which are critical vectors of OCPs to human and animal bodies. Training of farmers and other domestic users on the handling of pesticides is proposed.

Geographical distribution and risk assessment of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane and its metabolites in Perna viridis mussels from the northern coast of the South China Sea

Mussels (Perna viridis) were collected from the northern coast of the South China Sea (NSCS) to investigate the geographical distribution and potential risk of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane and its metabolites (DDTs). DDTs had concentrations that ranged from 248 ng/g to 4650 ng/g lipid weight (lw), with an average of 807 ± 932 ng/ng lw. A comparison of the levels of DDTs in mussels indicated that the NSCS is still one of the most polluted areas in the world, although a decreasing trend was observed. DDT metabolites were predominant in all samples, suggesting that historical residue was the main source of DDT pollution. However, there were new inputs of DDTs which likely associated with antifouling paints. The human health risk assessment revealed that the current concentrations of DDTs in mussels might pose little health risk for the consumers.

Occurrence and Toxicological Risk Evaluation of Organochlorine Pesticides from Suburban Soils of Kenya

The use of organic chemicals in agriculture and manufacturing has raised concerns about the dangers of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in the environment. By examining OCPs occurrence in the suburban soils from Kenya, this study revealed the distribution, concentrations, and the threat posed to the environment and human health. A gas chromatography electron capture detector was used to test the pesticides. The hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) studied in soils of Kapsabet, Voi, and Nyeri towns showed concentrations ranging from 0.03-52.7, 0.06-22.3, and 0.24-24.3 ng/g respectively. The highest concentration of HCHs was in Kapsabet (0.03-48.1 ng/g), whereas the highest DDTs concentration was in Voi (n.d.-15.5 ng/g). Source identification revealed OCPs pollution originated from recent usage of DDT pesticides to control insect-borne diseases and from the use of lindane in agriculture. Correlation test revealed that total organic carbon influenced the presence of pesticides in the soils. The enantiomeric ratios of α-HCH/γ-HCH were <3 indicating the use of lindane while the ratios of DDE/DDT were <1 suggesting recent input of DDT. The cancer risk assessment showed values close to the set risk level of 10^-6, suggesting the likelihood of exposure to cancer was not low enough, and control measures need to be established.

Distribution of Organohalogen and Synthetic Musk Compounds in Breast Adipose Tissue of Breast Cancer Patients in Ulster County, New York, USA

We determined the concentrations of 98 halogenated organic compounds and synthetic musks in breast fat tissues of 50 breast cancer patients (age range: 34-77 years) collected during 1996-1998 in Ulster County, New York, USA. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), polybrominated biphenyl 153 (PBB-153), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and synthetic musk compounds (SMCs) were analyzed in breast fat tissues, and 46 analytes were found at a detection frequency of ≥ 65% and at concentrations in the decreasing order of OCPs > PCBs > SMCs > PBDEs > PBB-153. PCBs (median: 323 ng/g wet wt) and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes (DDTs, median: 293 ng/g wet wt) were the major compounds found in breast fat tissues. Among PCB congeners, hexa- and hepta-chlorobiphenyls (60% of total PCBs) were the abundant ones. p,p'-DDE accounted for more than 99% of the total DDT concentrations. The concentrations of SMCs and PBDEs were 1-2 orders of magnitude lower than those of PCBs and DDTs. 1,3,4,6,7,8-Hexahydro-4,6,6,7,8,8-hexamethylcyclopenta-r-2-benzopyran (median: 33 ng/g wet wt) was the most abundant SMC, whereas BDE-47 (median: 4.5 ng/g wet wt) was the most dominant PBDE congener present in breast tissues. A significant correlation (p < 0.05) between women's age and concentrations of DDTs, chlordanes, hexachlorobenzene and PCBs in breast tissues was found. Concentrations of PCBs, PBDEs, OCPs, and SMCs were not significantly different between malignant and benign tumor cases. This study adds baseline information on target tissue burdens of persistent organic contaminants in breast cancer patients.

Exposure to Aroclor 1254 persistently suppresses the functions of pancreatic β-cells and deteriorates glucose homeostasis in male mice

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are a class of persistent organic pollutants that have been shown to be related to the occurrence of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Nevertheless, it is necessary to further explore the development of T2DM caused by PCBs and its underlying mechanisms. In the present study, 21-day-old C57BL/6 male mice were orally treated with Aroclor 1254 (0.5, 5, 50 or 500 μg kg^-1) once every three days. After exposure for 66 d, the mice showed impaired glucose tolerance, 13% and 14% increased fasting serum insulin levels (FSIL), and 63% and 69% increases of the pancreatic β-cell mass in the 50 and 500 μg kg^-1 groups, respectively. After stopping exposure for 90 d, treated mice returned to normoglycemia and normal FSIL. After re-exposure of these recovered mice to Aroclor 1254 for 30 d, fasting plasma glucose showed 15%, 28% and 16% increase in the 5, 50 and 500 μg kg^-1 treatments, FSIL exhibited 35%, 27%, 30% and 32% decrease in the 0.5, 5, 50 or 500 μg kg^-1 groups respectively, and there was no change in pancreatic β-cell mass. Transcription of the pancreatic insulin gene (Ins2) was significantly down-regulated in the 50 and 500 μg kg^-1 groups, while DNA-methylation levels were simultaneously increased in the Ins2 promoter during the course of exposure, recovery and re-exposure. Reduced insulin levels were initially rescued by a compensative increase in β-cell mass. However, β-cell mass eventually failed to make sufficient levels of insulin, resulting in significant increases in fasting blood glucose, and indicating the development of T2DM.

Environmental characterization of 4,4'-dichlorobenzophenone in surface waters from Macao and Hong Kong coastal areas (Pearl River Delta) and its toxicity on two biological models: Artemia salina and Daphnia magna

The Pearl River Delta (PRD) is one of the areas with higher environmental concentration of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), being DDT one of the most abundant. In this work, 4,4'-dichlorobenzophenone (4,4'-DCBP), a common metabolite of dicofol (DDT related) and DDT, was quantified in surface waters of Hong Kong and Macao, together with the analysis of physicochemical and nutrients parameters. Hong Kong presented higher 4,4'-DCBP mean levels (12.50 ng/L) than Macao (4.05 ng/L), which may be due to the use of dicofol as a pesticide and DDT as antifouling-paint for ships. The region presented a possible eutrophication state due to the high nutrients' concentration. For the first time, toxicity evaluation of this metabolite in Artemia salina and Daphnia magna was done, in order to compute valid EC₅₀s and theoretically evaluate the risk in the PRD. The toxicity results (EC₅₀ = 0.27 mg/L for A. salina; and EC₅₀ = 0.17 mg/L and LC₅₀ = 0.26 mg/L for D. magna), together with the 4,4'-DCBP levels quantified, indicated a low environmental risk.

Endocrine disrupting pesticides in soil and their health risk through ingestion of vegetables grown in Pakistan

A comprehensive study was conducted to appraise the concentrations of 30 endocrine disrupting pesticides (EDPs) in soil and vegetable samples collected from Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. The sum of 30 EDPs (Σ₃₀EDPs) ranged from 192 to 2148 μg kg^-1 in the collected soils. The selected EDP concentrations exceeded their respective limits in most of the tested soils and showed great variation from site to site. Similarly, high variations in Σ₃₀EDP concentrations were also observed in vegetables with the highest mean concentration in lettuce (28.9 μg kg^-1), followed by radish (26.6 μg kg^-1), spinach (25.7 μg kg^-1), onion (16.2 μg kg^-1), turnip (15.6 μg kg^-1), and garlic (14.7 μg kg^-1). However, EDP levels in all studied vegetables were within FAO/WHO limits. The mean bioconcentration factor values were observed < 1 for all the studied vegetables. The health risk assessment revealed that the incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) of Σ₃₀EDPs associated with vegetable ingestion was below the acceptable risk level (1 × 10^-6), showing no cancer risk to local inhabitants. However, exposure to endocrine disruptor and probable carcinogen heptachlor epoxide poses a potential non-cancer risk (hazard quotient (HQ > 1)) to children through vegetable consumption. The presence of banned EDPs in soils and vegetables of the study area indicates the stability of these legacy chemicals in the environment from over usage in the past or illegal current application for agricultural purposes. Graphical abstract.

Bioaccumulation and human health risks of OCPs and PCBs in freshwater products of Northeast China

The levels and spatial distribution of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in freshwater products from Northeast China were investigated by gas chromatography coupled to isotope dilution high-resolution mass spectrometry. All samples were on-spot sampled from main production regions of freshwater products in Northeast China, and these samples were used to systematically assess the potential health risks of OCPs and PCBs associated with consumption of these fishery products. Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes (DDTs), hexachlorocyclohexane (HCHs), hexachlorobenzene (HCB) and PCBs were the major pollutants with 100% detection rates, and their levels ranged from 0.086 to 58, 0.038-3.3, 0.093-4.5 and 0.032-1.4 ng g^-1 wet weight, respectively. The estimated dietary intakes of these contaminants were all below their corresponding acceptable daily intakes. Significant regional differences in the levels of OCPs and PCBs (P ≦ 0.001) were found in samples from Liaoning and Inner Mongolia. The results showed that the concentrations of targeted contaminants in aquatic products had species-specific characteristics, and the levels of targeted pollutants in Oncorhynchus mykiss and Eriocheir sienesis were significantly higher than those in other aquatic product species. Advisories on ten species of aquatic products suggested that consumption of Eriocheir sinensis, Oncorhynchus mykiss and Cyprinus carpio at a rate exceeding 15 meals per month would pose a cancer risk. A health risk assessment indicated that exposure to these pollutants through freshwater products consumption would cause a non-ignorable potential carcinogenic risk to humans.

Dietary patterns and serum of DDT concentrations among reproductive-aged group of women in Bangladesh

This research was conducted in order to propose ways to reduce human exposure to DDT, especially for women of reproductive age in Bangladesh, and to find a relation between DDT exposure levels in serum and questionnaire information including sociodemographic and food frequency (FFQ). In this study, a significant relationship was found between the education level and BMI, and the serum p,p'-DDE concentration. This result suggests that people with higher education (relating to higher income) and BMI in Bangladesh actively buy expensive foodstuff, like meat and/or fatty fish, which relates to a higher fat intake. Additionally, a weak positive relationship between p,p'-DDE concentration in serum and the frequency of beef consumption was observed among the nullipara women subgroup. In a previous study, beef and fish showed large contributions on DDT intake of Bangladesh population. Those results suggest that the control of fatty food consumption such as meat (beef) and marine fish might help to regulate the levels of DDT.

Biomagnification and enantiomeric profiles of organochlorine pesticides in food web components from Zhoushan Fishing Ground, China

Trophodynamics and chiral signatures of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), including dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes (DDTs), hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs), and chlordanes in a food web from Zhoushan Fishing Ground, China, were studied. Residues of OCPs in all teleost fishes were within food safety levels. Strong positive correlations were found between trophic levels (TLs) and wet weight concentrations of target chemicals, with trophic magnification factors (TMFs) from 4.17 to 9.77. Lipid contents and TLs significantly correlated, which indirectly affect the bioaccumulation processes of OCPs. The consistently racemic EF values of α-HCH, as well as invariability of the relative proportions of HCH isomers in different marine species implied that HCHs in animals originate directly from the surrounding environment. However, in vivo biotransformation and/or elimination of o,p'-DDT cannot be precluded. TMFs of the individual enantiomers further suggest that the influence of achiral biotransformation is too minor to induce enantioselective biomagnification of chiral OCPs through the studied food web.

Phthalate esters and organochlorine pesticides in agricultural soils and vegetables from fast-growing regions: a case study from eastern China

The present study investigated phthalate esters (PAEs) and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in agricultural soils and vegetables from eastern China. The concentrations of PAEs ranged from 109 to 5560 ng/g in soils and 60.1 to 2390 ng/g in cabbages, with average concentrations of 946 and 601 ng/g, respectively. The concentrations of OCPs ranged from <0.1 to 662 ng/g in soils and <0.1 to 42.8 ng/g in cabbages, with average concentrations of 134 and 11.6 ng/g, respectively. OCPs were mainly in the 0-30 cm surface soil layers, while PAEs could infiltrate in deep soil profiles to 70-80 cm layer. Potential source analysis traced the occurrence of OCPs to both historical application and current usage, whereas building materials and agricultural plastic film were possible input sources of PAEs in the ambient environment. OCPs showed no apparent effect on soil microbial communities, whereas significant negative relationship was observed between PAEs and fungi in soils (R = -0.54, p < 0.01). Human health risk assessment data revealed marginal noncarcinogenic risks and low carcinogenic risks in these soils. Notably, PAEs posed a comparable or higher risk level compared with that of OCPs. This study suggests the need for better regulation on pollution control and management of PAE-elevated sites to protect soil quality and food safety.

Occurrence, ecological risk assessment, and spatio-temporal variation of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in water and sediments along River Ravi and its northern tributaries, Pakistan

Ecological risk assessment, spatio-temporal variation, and source apportionment of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were studied in surface sediments and water from River Ravi and its three northern tributaries (Nullah Deg, Nullah Basantar, and Nullah Bein) in Pakistan. In total, 35 PCB congeners were analyzed along 27 sampling stations in pre-monsoon and post-monsoon seasons. The ∑₃₅PCB concentration ranged from 1.06 to 95.76 ng/g (dw) in sediments and 1.94 to 11.66 ng/L in water samples, with hexa-CBs and tetra-CBs as most dominant homologs in sediments and water matrixes, respectively. The ∑₈DL-PCB levels were 0.33-22.13 ng/g (dw) and 0.16-1.95 ng/L in sediments and water samples, respectively. The WHO-toxic equivalent values were ranged from 1.18 × 10^-6 to 0.012 ng/L and 1.8 × 10^-6 to 0.031 ng/g in water and sediments matrixes, respectively. The ecological risk assessment indicates considerable potential ecological risk during pre-monsoon season ([Formula: see text] = 95.17) and moderate potential ecological risk during post-monsoon season ([Formula: see text] = 49.11). The industrial and urban releases were recognized as key ongoing sources for high PCB levels in environment. Therefore, we recommend more freshwater ecological studies to be conducted in the study area and firm regulatory initiatives are required to be taken in debt to the Stockholm Convention, 2001 to cop up with PCB contamination on emergency basis.

Phytoremediation of organochlorine pesticides: Concept, method, and recent developments

Rapid increase in industrialization of world economy in the past century has resulted in significantly high emission of anthropogenic chemicals in the ecosystem. The organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) are a great risk to the global environment and endanger the human health due to their affinity for dispersion, transportation over long distances, and bioaccumulation in the food chain. Phytoremediation is a promising technology that aims to make use of plants and associated bacteria for the treatment of groundwater and soil polluted by these contaminants. Processes known to be involved in phytoremediation of OCPs include phytoaccumulation, rhizoremediation, and phytotransformation. Vegetation has been accounted to considerably amplify OCP elimination from soil, in contrast to non-planted soil, attributable to both, uptake within plant tissues and high microbial degradation of OCP within the root zone. Developing transgenic plants is a promising approach to enhance phytoremediation capabilities. Recent advances in the application of phytoremediation technique for OCPs, including uptake by plants and plant-microbe association in the rhizosphere for the enhanced degradation and mineralization of these pollutants, is presented in this review. Additionally, some attempts to improve this technique using transgenesis and role of certain enzymes are also discussed.

Organochlorine pesticides levels and associated factors in a group of blood donors in São Paulo, Brazil

The use of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) is a worldwide public health concern given that high levels of these compounds in humans and animals can lead to serious health problems. This study aimed to evaluate the levels of 15 organochlorine pesticides in the serum of 547 blood donors in the São Paulo metropolitan region (SPMR) in 2009 and to investigate factors associated with higher levels of these compounds. The OCPs were determined by gas chromatography with micro electron capture detection. Multiple ordinal logistic regression models were employed to determine the factors associated with higher levels. Only β-HCH and p,p'-DDE had a significant number of samples above the limit of quantification. Factors associated with higher levels of β-HCH were age within 26 to 35 years (OR = 3.1 [1.05-9.09]), age within 36 to 45 years (OR = 18.27 [6.89-48.91]), and female gender (OR = 0.44 [0.24-0.82] for men). p,p'-DDE levels were associated with age within 26 to 35 years (OR = 2.65 [1.20-3.45]), age within 36 to 45 years (OR = 4.59 [2.64-7.92]), female gender (OR = 0.86 [0.43-0.94] for men), and previous work with pesticides (OR = 2.88 [1.22-6.84]). Lower levels of p,p'-DDE were associated with an income of 3 to 5 minimum wages (OR = 0.38 [0.19-0.75]) and with intake of foods from animal origin up to twice a week (OR = 0.15 [0.03-0.72]) and more than twice a week (OR = 0.10 [0.02-0.47]). The results of this study indicate that the study group was not exposed to high levels of OCPs.

Spatial correlation analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in sediments between Taihu Lake and its tributary rivers

The residues of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in surface sediments from Taihu Lake basin (THB) and Taihu Lake body (THL) were investigated. Higher concentrations of both PAHs and OCPs were observed for THB than THL. The concentrations of PAHs ranged from 12.1 to 2281.1ngg^-1 dw for THB and from 11.4 to 209.9ngg^-1 dw for THL, while OCPs ranged from 16.3 to 96.9ngg^-1 dw and from 16.8 to 61.9ngg^-1 dw for THB and THL, respectively. Spatial distribution of PAHs and OCPs showed a high correspondence with the land use of THB and surrounding anthropogenic activity. Additionally, the Kriging interpolation plots demonstrated that the major upper reaches were more polluted than the lower reaches, indicating the transport of pollutants with the water flow direction. The organic matter contents were responsible for OCP distribution other than PAHs due to the biodegradation capacity difference of chemicals. Similar compositions of pollutants were observed with 3- and 4-ringed PAHs accounting for a total of 78.3% for THB and 85.8% for THL, respectively. HCHs and DDTs were predominant OCPs, which contributed to 31.8% and 21.7% for THB, and 33.6% and 21.9% for THL, respectively. The isomeric and parent substance/metabolite ratios implied fresh inputs of DDTs and chlordanes, while HCHs and endosulfans were mainly from old usage. PAH source identification performed by diagnostic ratios demonstrated the mixed sources of petrogenic and pyrogenic ones dominated by grass, wood and coal combustion. Furthermore, the hazard quotient (HQ) based on the consensus-based sediment quality guidelines (SQGs) was used to evaluate the ecological risks of sediments. Although no frequently adverse effects were observed, potential ecological risks induced by Ant, BaA, γ-HCH, dieldrin, p,p'-DDT and chlordanes should also be paid attention to considering the continuous inputs of such pollutants.

Exposure to DDT and its metabolites from khat (Catha edulis) chewing: Consumers risk assessment from southwestern Ethiopia

Khat (Catha edulis) is one of the most consumed plant in the horn of African countries. However, it is a stimulant plant that has several side effects on the health of consumers. On top of that, the khat leaves used for human consumption are often contain contaminants such as pesticide residues. The present study aims to investigate the level of DDT residue and its metabolites (p'p-DDE, p'p-DDD, o'p-DDT and p'p-DDT) in khat samples and to undertake exposure assessment to consumers. The khat samples were collected from local markets in southwestern Ethiopia. Consumption survey was undertaken using 24 h recall method for both male and female khat consumers. The finding showed that 80% of the khat samples contained DDT and its metabolites. Some of the residues were above the maximum residue limit (MRL) set by Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO). The concentration of p'p-DDE and p'p-DDT in khat were in the range of 0.033-0.113 and 0.010-0.026 mg/kg, respectively. High concentration of the metabolite (p'p-DDE) compared to the parent compound (p'p-DDT) revealed the historical use of DDT in the study area. Probabilistic exposure analysis indicated that the mean and 97.5 percentile (P97.5), of the estimated daily intake of total DDT were 0.002 and 0.006 mg/kg bw/day, respectively. The study concluded that khat consumers are exposed to the stimulant effect of the plant as well as DDT and its metabolites in Jimma zone.

Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethanes (DDTs) in human hair and serum in rural and urban areas in South China

Human hair has been employed as a biomarker for exposure to persistent organic pollutants (POPs), but information on the source of dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT) and its metabolites in hair is limited. The present study investigated the contamination of DDTs in human hair from a rural area and an urban area of South China and compared with those in human serum and indoor dust. The concentrations of ∑DDTs ranged from 2.30 to 489ng/g, with a median of 21.8ng/g in human hair. The ∑DDT concentrations (median=40.8ng/g) in female hair were significantly higher than those in male hair (median=20.6ng/g). There were significantly positive correlations between the concentrations of DDTs and ages in both the female and male hair, but the age-dependence for DDTs in serum was less significant. The profile of DDT analogues in female hair, differing from that in the male hair, was more similar to that in the indoor dust, suggesting a more important role of exogenous exposure in female hair. We estimated that exogenous source is responsible for approximately 11% and 20% of the burden of DDTs in the male and female hair, respectively. Adjusted multiple linear regression model showed significantly positive association between the p,p'-DDE concentrations in the paired hair and serum samples, indicating that endogenous origins are the primary sources of DDTs in the hair of the residents in the study areas. Our findings demonstrated that human hair is a reliable biomarker for body burden of DDTs and can be used in epidemiology research and retrospective assessment of DDT exposure.

Organochloride pesticides impaired mitochondrial function in hepatocytes and aggravated disorders of fatty acid metabolism

p,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (p, p'-DDE) and β-hexachlorocyclohexane (β-HCH) were two predominant organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) metabolites in human body associated with disorders of fatty acid metabolism. However, the underlying mechanisms have not been fully clarified. In this study, adult male C57BL/6 mice were exposed to low dose of p, p'-DDE and β-HCH for 8 wk. OCPs accumulation in organs, hepatic fatty acid composition, tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA) metabolites and other metabolite profiles were analyzed. Expression levels of genes involved in hepatic lipogenesis and β-oxidation were measured. Mitochondrial function was evaluated in HepG2 cells exposed to OCPs. High accumulation of p, p'-DDE and β-HCH was found in liver and damaged mitochondria was observed under electron microscopy. Expression of genes in fatty acid synthesis increased and that in mitochondrial fatty acid β-oxidation decreased in OCPs treatment groups. OCPs changed metabolite profiles in liver tissues, varied hepatic fatty acid compositions and levels of several TCA cycle metabolites. Furthermore, MitoTracker Green fluorescence, ATP levels, mitochondrial membrane potential and OCR decreased in HepG2 cells exposed to OCPs. In conclusion, chronic exposure to OCPs at doses equivalent to internal exposures in humans impaired mitochondrial function, decreased fatty acid β-oxidation and aggravated disorders of fatty acid metabolism.

Indicator polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in seafood from Xiamen (China): levels, distributions, and risk assessment

Indicator polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) were determined in 289 seafood samples including fishes, crustaceans, and shellfish collected from six administrative regions in Xiamen of China. The residual levels of PCBs, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane and its metabolites (DDTs), and hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs) ranged <LOD-64 (median 1.8) ng g^-1 wet weight (ww), 0.03-88 (median 1.4) ng g^-1 ww, and <LOD-5.5 (median <LOD) ng g^-1 ww, respectively. The most abundant compounds were PCB101, p,p'-DDT, and β-HCH. Significant differences in the amounts of PCBs and DDTs were recorded among the species, whereas no significant differences were observed among the species with regard to HCH concentrations. Within the regions investigated, the concentrations of PCBs were much lower in Haicang than in other regions and HCHs were detected with highest concentration in Siming, while no significant differences were observed in DDT concentrations. Principal component analysis (PCA) showed that PCB and OCP pollutions came from similar sources in Xiamen. But the pollution sources of Xiangan were diverse. The predominance of PCBs might be attributed to the past usage of domestically produced commercial PCB mixtures, and the profiles of OCPs might indicate their current use in agriculture. Results of carcinogenic risk assessment based on the 50th or 95th percentile exposure levels exceeded the threshold, suggesting that the PCBs should be of concern. On the other hand, the hazard quotients (HQs) of noncancer risks were all far below than 1.

Assessment of organochlorine pesticide residues in raw food samples from open markets in two African cities

This study investigates the level of organochlorine pesticides in the raw food from open markets in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), and Johannesburg, South Africa. It assesses the potential health risks associated with the organochlorine pesticide residues. The Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged, and Safe (QuEChERS) method has been developed for sample preparation. A total of 120 food samples (beans, cabbage, beef, and fish) were obtained from the open markets. The mean concentrations of organochlorine pesticides in raw foods collected from the Johannesburg market were significantly higher (p < 0.05) than those from the Kinshasa market. DDE recorded the highest mean concentration (253.58 ± 4.78 μg kg^-1) in beef from Johannesburg, and α-BHC recorded the lowest mean concentration (38.54 ± 7.46 μg kg^-1) in beans from Kinshasa. The investigation of health risk estimates revealed that the number of organochlorine pesticides exceeded the reference dose in the collected food samples.

PCBs and OCPs in fish along coastal fisheries in China: Distribution and health risk assessment

PCBs and OCPs were analyzed in fish (bass) taken along Chinese coastal fisheries. In the bass muscle, PCB, DDT and HCH concentrations were in the range of 1.02-2.2ng/g, 0.44-1.74 and 2.84-106.11ng/gww, respectively. Spatial distribution showed that the concentrations of target contaminants in bass from south fisheries were in general much lower than those from north fisheries in China. The ratios of OCP congeners suggested that technical DDT was not the main input and a recent usage of lindane or old technical HCH residuals could be the source of HCHs. The OCC concentrations in liver (127-442.43ng/gww) from selected samples were 8-12 and 10-14 times higher than those in gills and muscles, respectively. Based on the maximum allowable fish assumption rate (CRlim and CRmm), it could cause human health risk, by consuming bass samples taken from highly contaminated fisheries including QD and ST.

Concentrations of organochlorine pesticides in umbilical cord blood and related lifestyle and dietary intake factors among pregnant women of the Huaihe River Basin in China

Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), one of the persistent organic pollutants (POPs) with highly lipophilic properties, long half-lives, and persistence in the environment, are prevalent in the environment even though they have been banned for >30years. We aimed to investigate the current OCP exposure levels in cord blood from healthy pregnant women residing in the Huaihe River Basin, China, and examined the association between OCP levels and dietary habits and lifestyle factors. In this study, we measured the exposure levels of 17 OCPs in the umbilical cord blood from 999 healthy pregnant women; we also administered 1000 self-reported questionnaires regarding the general characteristics and dietary habits of those women. Our results showed that ρ,ρ'-DDE, ρ,ρ'-DDT, aldrin, dieldrin, and methoxychlor, which had higher measured concentrations (2.01±1.89, 4.31±5.68, 7.29±8.74, 5.27±7.65, and 0.98±1.42ng/mL, respectively) and detection frequencies (99.69%, 100.00%, 81.79%, 75.00%, and 74.49%, respectively), were the predominant OCPs in cord blood, and the higher levels of DDTs, aldrin, dieldrin, and methoxychlor were mainly due to recent use. In addition, most of the HCHs in cord blood were derived not only from historical use of technical HCH, but also from the additional use of lindane. In addition, we found that the education level of the pregnant women and monthly household income were positively correlated with OCP levels, particularly ρ,ρ'-DDE, aldrin, and dieldrin. Furthermore, the consumption of red meat (pork, beef, and lamb), fish, and bean products may be an important contributing factor to the increased concentrations of OCPs in cord blood, while the intake of poultry and pickles was negatively correlated with aldrin level. This study is the first to provide adequate data on current OCP exposure levels in cord blood from pregnant women in the Huaihe River Basin.

Aroclor 1254 causes atrophy of exocrine pancreas in mice and the mechanism involved

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are a class of organic pollutants that have been linked to pancreatic disease. However, their role in affecting the exocrine function of pancreas and the underlying mechanism remains elusive. In the present study, male C57 mice were treated with Aroclor 1254, a commercially available PCBs mixture, at a dosage of 0.5, 5, 50, or 500 μg kg(-1) every 3 days by oral gavage. Decrease in pancreas/soma index and acinar atrophy were observed in the mice after exposure for 50 days. Aroclor 1254 exposure significantly decreased the PCNA-positive cells in the pancreatic acini in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, western blot analysis showed that PCNA expression was decreased in pancreas in the presence of Aroclor 1254, which suggests that Aroclor 1254 suppresses cell proliferation. TUNEL-positive apoptotic cells as well as the expression of Bcl2, BclXL, BAX, and Bad of exocrine pancreas did not show significant changes in the treated mice, indicating that Aroclor 1254 has no effect on apoptosis. We also found that phosphorylation of ERK1/2, P90RSK1 and Bad was increased in the treated groups; this compensatory activation of phosphorylation in ERK1/2-P90RSK1-Bad signaling cascade could protect cell from apoptosis to maintain the cell numbers and function of exocrine pancreas. Moreover, we found that the expression of Kras and TNFα was increased in the pancreas, indicating that Aroclor 1254 exposure could result in increased risk of inflammation and carcinoma. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Environ Toxicol 31: 671-678, 2016.

Relationship between e-waste recycling and human health risk in India: a critical review

Informal recycling of waste (including e-waste) is an emerging source of environmental pollution in India. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polychlorinated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and heavy metals, among other substances, are a major health concern for workers engaged in waste disposal and processing, and for residents living near these facilities, and are also a detriment to the natural environment. The main objective of this review article was to evaluate the status of these impacts. The review found that, huge quantity of e-waste/waste generated, only a small amount is treated formally; the remainder is processed through the informal sector. We also evaluated the exposure pathways, both direct and indirect, and the human body load markers (e.g., serum, blood, breast milk, urine, and hair), and assessed the evidence for the association between these markers and e-waste exposure. Our results indicated that the open dumping and informal e-waste recycling systems should be replaced by the best available technology and environmental practices, with proper monitoring and regular awareness programs for workers and residents. Further and more detailed investigation in this area is also recommended.

Health risk associated with the consumption of duck egg containing endosulfan residues

Eight duck farms and a local market in Suphanburi province, Thailand adjacent to paddy fields were selected for this study. The concentrations of endosulfan isomers (α- and β-endosulfan) and endosulfan sulfate in environmental matrices (water, soil, feed) and duck eggs were determined. Human health risk via the contaminated egg consumption was also evaluated. Analysis of environmental matrices found both endosulfan isomers (α- and β-endosulfan) and endosulfan sulfate in most samples. Endosulfan sulfate was predominantly found in all matrices followed by β- and α-endosulfan, respectively. The total endosulfan concentrations were in the following order: feed > soil > water. However, the levels of endosulfan detected were lower than the regulatory maximum residue limit of endosulfan, except in water (>0.200 ng mL(-1)). Endosulfan sulfate in duck egg samples was also predominantly detected in both yolk and albumin. The average total endosulfan residues (∑endosulfan) in yolk (6.73 ng g(-1)) were higher than in albumin (4.78 ng g(-1)). According to principle component analysis, we found that paddy soil surrounding the duck farms is the suspected source of endosulfan contamination in husbandry water which subsequently contaminates duck eggs. The estimated daily intakes (EDIs) of these endosulfan-contaminated eggs were well below the acceptable daily intake (ADI) for endosulfan (6 μg kg(-1) day(-1)). However, the consumption of this contaminated duck eggs should be of concerns in regard to chronic exposure. Therefore, the better environmental managements to reduce endosulfan residues can play a crucial role for decreasing human health risk.

Soil and river contamination patterns of chlordecone in a tropical volcanic catchment in the French West Indies (Guadeloupe)

The aim of this study was to identify primary flow paths involved in the chlordecone (CLD) river contamination and quantify the CLD fluxes to assess CLD pollution levels and duration according to a typical catchment of the banana cropping area in the French Indies (Guadeloupe): the Pérou Catchment (12 km(2)) characterized by heavy rainfall (5686 mm year(-1)). Three sub-catchments (SC1, SC2 and SC3) were studied during the hydrological year 2009-2010: a pedological survey combined with a spatialized hydrochemical approach was conducted. The average soil concentration is higher in the Pérou Catchment (3400 μg kg(-1)) than in the entire banana cropping area in Guadeloupe (2100 μg kg(-1)). The results showed that CLD stocks in soils vary largely among soil types and farming systems: the weakest stocks are located upstream in SC1 (5 kg ha(-1)), where a majority of the area is non-cultivated; medium stocks are located in Nitisols downstream in SC3 (9 kg ha(-1)); and the greatest stocks are observed in SC2 on Andosols (12 kg ha(-1)) characterized by large farms. The annual water balance and the hydro-chemical analysis revealed that the three sub-catchments exhibited different behaviors. Pérou River contamination was high during low flows, which highlighted that contamination primarily originated from groundwater contributions. The results showed that only a small part of the catchment (SC2), contributing little to the water flow, comprises a major CLD contribution, which is in agreement with the highly contaminated andosol soils observed there. Another significant result considers that at least 50 years would be required to export the totality of the actual CLD soil stocks retained in the topsoil layer. The actual time for soil remediation will however be much longer considering (i) the necessary time for the chlordecone to percolate and be stored in the shallow aquifers and (ii) its travel time to reach the river.

Effects of benthic organism Tubifex tubifex on hexachlorocyclohexane isomers transfer and distribution into freshwater sediment

In this study, bioaccumulation and elimination of HCHs in tubifex, and the distribution of HCHs in overlying water and sediment, were studied during a 10-d experiment. A sensitive method was developed for the determination of HCHs in samples based on gas chromatograph (GC) equipped with a nickel-63 electron capture detector (μECD). The limit of detection (LOD) was 0.35 µg/kg for α-HCH and 0.82 µg/kg for β-HCH. Tubifex accumulated HCHs rapidly, and the curves were approximately M-type. The highest level was reached on the 7th day, with 0.34 mg/kg(wwt) for α-HCH and 0.87 mg/kg(wwt) for β-HCH in worms. The AFs of β-HCH in tubifex were higher than those of α-HCH. Moreover, the existence of tubifex significantly reduced β-HCH fluxes from the overlying water to sediment by uptake or degradation and decreased the concentrations of β-HCH in the sediment, but it had little influence on α-HCH fluxes. Moreover, enantioselectivity of α-HCH enantiomers was not observed in tubifex, whether in the bioaccumulation or elimination experiments. At the end of the elimination experiment, approximately 80% and 70% of α-HCH and β-HCH were eliminated, and the depuration half-lives were 4.43 and 5.39 days, respectively.

Levels and patterns of DDTs in maternal colostrum from an island population and exposure of neonates

Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) was heavily used in the past in many regions of the world. The occurrence of DDTs in island populations may be elevated if the island is adjacent to major DDT consumption estuaries, such as the Yangtze River Delta. In this study, colostrum samples were collected from maternal-neonate pairs (n = 106) from the Shengsi Island, located directly downstream from the Yangtze River outlet. DDT isomers and enantiomer compositions were analyzed by gas chromatography equipped with mass spectrometer (GC/MS) and GC/MS-MS. The average levels of p,p'-DDE, o,p'-DDD, p,p'-DDD, o,p'-DDT, p,p'-DDT and total DDTs were 1.32, 0.03, 0.09, 0.08, 0.48, and 1.93 μg g(-1) lipid weight, respectively. Maternal age and pregnancy body mass index (BMI) were positively associated with levels of DDTs (p < 0.05). High (DDE+DDD)/DDT and p,p'-DDE/p,p'-DDT ratios suggested that current DDT residues originated primarily from historical use of DDT products, but new sources may also contribute partially to some high o,p'-DDT/p,p'-DDT ratios. Enantiomeric enrichment was found for the (-)-enantiomer of o,p'-DDD and the (+)-enantiomer of o,p'-DDT, suggesting stereoselective attenuation. Based on breast milk consumption, the average daily intake of DDTs by neonates was 8.33 ± 7.34 μg kg(-1)bw per day, which exceeded the WHO's tolerable daily intake guideline of 0.01 mg kg(-1) bw per day by 25%, implying some neonates in the Yangtze River region are potentially at high risk from exposure to DDTs.

Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs) in rice grains and straw; risk surveillance, congener specific analysis, distribution and source apportionment from selected districts of Punjab Province, Pakistan

The current study presents health risk surveillance by investigating the levels of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in rice (Oryza sativa L.) grains and rice straw. Samples were collected from four districts (Okara, Sahiwal, Lahore and Sheikhpura) of Punjab Province, Pakistan for congener specific analysis of PCBs, and to observe the spatial distribution pattern and point sources. Level of Σ30 PCB (ng g(-1)) in rice grains and rice straw ranged from 4.31 to 29.68 and 6.11-25.35, respectively. Tetra-CBs were found predominant in rice straw (49%) and grains (38%) over other PCB homologs. No significant variation (P>0.005) was observed for most of the screened PCBs congeners except, PCB-66, -77, -60, -101, -74, -138, -153 and -105 in rice grains and PCB-66 in rice straw. Reported toxicity equivalency (TEQ) values for dioxin like PCBs in rice grains were found lower than the previously published reports from Asian countries, however higher TEQ values are reported for rice straw in this study. Health was found at risk of cancer among one in million by consumption of the study area food stuffs, though no considerable carcinogenic risks to human health was found.