Bisphenol A analogues (BPS and BPF) present a greater obesogenic capacity in 3T3-L1 cell line

Effects of multiple novel bisphenol S analogs on adipogenesis in 3T3-L1 cells

The increasing usage of bisphenol S (BPS) analogs as novel alternatives to bisphenol A (BPA) or BPS results in widespread exposure risks. In contrast to BPS, BPS analog-induced perturbations in lipid metabolism are largely unknown. Our study aimed to investigate the interactions of nine novel BPS analogs with peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) and their impacts on 3T3-L1 adipogenesis. BPS and its analogs were found to have varying binding affinities to the PPARγ ligand-binding domain, and five of the BPS analogs were identified as novel PPARγ agonists as evidenced by increased expressions of the PPARγ mediated luciferase reporter gene. Interestingly, seven BPS analogs, including five BPS analogs with PPARγ agonistic potency and two BPS analogs with negligible binding affinity, exhibited comparable or even greater adipogenic effects than BPS, which were demonstrated by increased triglyceride accumulation and enhanced expressions of the adipogenic biomarkers in 3T3-L1 cells. Further comparison revealed that a phenoxy group may be a potential structural regulator for the adipogenic capacities of the test BPS analogs. The findings provided the first evidence that seven novel BPS analogs exerted adipogenic potentials through PPARγ or other signaling pathways, revealing a hidden environmental factor in the development of obesity and other lipid metabolism disorders.

Bisphenol A-induced cancer-associated adipocytes promotes breast carcinogenesis via CXCL12/AKT signaling

Bisphenol A (BPA), a commonly used plastic additive, is believed to cause obesity. As an environmental endocrine disruptor, BPA is closely associated with the onset and progression of BC. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the promotion of breast cancer by BPA remain unclear. As obesity is a significant risk factor for breast cancer, this study aimed at exploring whether BPA facilitates the progression of breast cancer by inducing obesity. Using the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey data, a positive correlation was observed between BPA exposure and the risk of sex-specific cancers among US adults with body mass index ≥30, suggesting that obesity may be influenced by urinary BPA. 3T3-L1 cells differentiated into mature adipocytes following treatment with 10-8 M BPA, and subsequent treatment with 4T1-conditioned medium acquired properties associated with cancer-associated adipocytes (CAAs). Network pharmacology suggested that CXCL12 may serve as a key target gene in breast cancer progression. Follow-up PCR analysis revealed high CXCL12 expression in BPA-induced CAAs. Overexpression of CXCL12 promoted epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and 4T1 cell migration by activating the AKT pathway. In vivo, BPA-induced CAAs accelerated tumor growth compared to a controls xenografted with only 4T1 cells. In tissues from the BPA-CAAs group, the expression of CXCL12, markers associated with CAAs, phosphorylated AKT, N-cadherin, and vimentin was markedly elevated, whereas the expression of E-cadherin was reduced. In conclusion, BPA may induce adipose cells to differentiate into CAA-like cells and subsequently advance breast cancer EMT through the CXCL12/AKT pathway.

Comprehensive assessment of the safety of bisphenol A and its analogs based on multi-toxicity tests in vitro

As substitutes for bisphenol A (BPA), bisphenol analogs (BPs) have raised concerns due to their frequent environmental detection and unclear safety. Here, the cytotoxicity, endocrine disruption, neurotoxicity, aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) activity, and genotoxicity of nine BPs and BPA were evaluated in three types of cell lines. Over half of the tested BPs exhibited greater cytotoxicity than BPA, with IC50 values showing a linear correlation with LogKow (R²=0.69). All tested BPs exhibited at least one endocrine-disrupting effect, notably estrogenic, which was observable even at 0.01-0.1 μM. Importantly, BPAF and BPAP exposure had widespread endocrine-suppressing effects. Moreover, all BPs (except BPP) and BPA increased SH-SY5Y cells apoptosis at 1-10 μM. Only BPF and BPP significantly increased 7-ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase levels, highlighting their notable effects on AhR activity. BPAF significantly induced DNA damage at 1.25 μM, whereas BPA, BPF, and BPP induced damage at 20, 25, and 25 μM, respectively. Finally, ToxPi, a weighted scoring system, was used to rank the comprehensive toxicity of BPs, with 7 of 9 BPs showing higher scores than BPA. Collectively, BPs generally exhibited stronger comprehensive toxicity compared with BPA, emphasizing the urgent need for further research to confirm their potential health implications.

Anti-obesogenic effect of standardized Brassica juncea extract on bisphenol A-induced 3T3-L1 preadipocytes and C57BL/6J obese mice

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a representative obesogen that induces adipocyte differentiation and lipid accumulation by mimicking the action of hormones. Brassica juncea is a plant belonging to the mustard family, and has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-obesity effects. However, its efficacy against obesogen-induced obesity requires further investigation. In this study, we investigated the anti-obesogenic effects of Brassica juncea extract (BJE) on BPA-treated 3T3-L1 preadipocytes and C57BL/6J mice. The treatment with BPA and BJE did not have cytotoxic effects in vitro. In addition, BJE inhibited BPA-induced lipid accumulation and suppressed BPA-induced changes in adipocyte differentiation, adipogenesis, and lipolysis protein expression in 3T3-L1 cells. Oral administration of BJE reduced body weight, adipose tissue mass, and adipocyte size in BPA-induced obese C57BL/6 mice. BJE also regulated the expression of proteins involved in adipocyte differentiation, adipogenesis, and lipolysis. These data demonstrate that BJE is a natural functional substance with anti-obesogenic effects.

Exploring the association between urinary bisphenol A, S, and F levels and semen quality parameters: Findings from Led-Fertyl cross-sectional study

Infertility is recognized as a multifaceted condition affecting approximately 15% of couples globally, influenced by various factors including genetic predisposition and environmental exposures. Among these environmental factors, bisphenol A (BPA) emerges as a prominent Endocrine-disrupting chemical (EDCs) widely distributed, leading to chronic human exposure in daily life. As regulations on BPA became more stringent, alternative substances such as bisphenol S (BPS) and bisphenol F (BPF) have emerged. Animal studies have demonstrated a dose-dependent decline in fertility and embryotoxicity following chronic exposure to BPA. However, literature data on human studies are limited and heterogeneous. Additionally, even less is known about the relationship between exposure to the BPA analogues (BPS and BPF) and sperm quality. Therefore, the present study aimed to examine the association between urinary concentrations of BPA, BPF, and BPS and semen quality parameters among 195 adult Spanish men from the Led-Fertyl study cohort using multiple linear regression models adjusted by potential confounding variables. Our results revealed an inverse association between log-transformed creatinine-adjusted concentration (ng/mg) of BPA and BPF levels and the percentage of sperm vitality (β: 3.56 %; 95%CI: 6.48 to -0.63 and β: 4.14 %; 95%CI: 6.97 to -1.31; respectively). Furthermore, participants in the highest quartile of BPA and BPF urinary concentration exhibited lower sperm vitality compared to those in the lowest quartile (β: 6.90 %; 95%CI: 11.60 to -2.15 and β: 9.68 %; 95%CI: 14.43 to -4.94; respectively). These results supply epidemiological evidence establishing a relationship between bisphenols urine exposure and sperm quality, suggesting that a re-evaluation of the overall safety of BPA alternatives is warranted.

Bisphenol A and Its Emergent Substitutes: State of the Art of the Impact of These Plasticizers on Oxidative Stress and Its Role in Vascular Dysfunction

The "One Health approach" has evidenced the significant impact of xenobiotic exposure to health, and humans are a relevant target for their toxic effects. Bisphenol A (BPA) exerts a ubiquitous exposure source in all ecosystems. Given its endocrine-disrupting and harmful consequences on health, several countries have enforced new regulations to reduce exposure to BPA. Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are complex conditions that lead to higher mortality worldwide, where family history, lifestyle, and environmental factors, like BPA exposure, have a remarkable contribution. This chemical compound is the most widely used in plastic and epoxy resin manufacturing and has been associated with effects on human health. Therefore, new-generation bisphenols (NGBs) are replacing BPA use, arguing that they do not harm health. Nonetheless, the knowledge about whether NGBs are secure options is scanty. Although BPA's effects on several organs and systems have been documented, the role of BPA and NGBs in CVDs has yet to be explored. This review's goals are focused on the processes of endothelial activation (EA)-endothelial dysfunction (ED), a cornerstone of CVDs development, bisphenols' (BPs) effects on these processes through oxidant and antioxidant system alteration. Despite the scarce evidence on pro-oxidant effects associated with NGBs, our review demonstrated a comparable harmful effect on BPA. The results from the present review suggest that the biological mechanisms to explain BPs cardiotoxic effects are the oxidant stress ↔ inflammatory response ↔ EA ↔ ED → atherosclerotic plate → coagulation promotion. Other effects contributing to CVD development include altered lipid metabolism, ionic channels, and the activation of different intracellular pathways, which contribute to ED perpetuation in a concerted manner.

Metabolic status is a key factor influencing proteomic changes in ewe granulosa cells induced by chronic BPS exposure

BACKGROUND

Bisphenol S (BPS) is the main substitute for bisphenol A (BPA), a well-known plasticiser and endocrine disruptor. BPS disrupts ovarian function in several species. Moreover, a few studies have reported that the effects of BPS might be modulated by the metabolic status, and none have characterised the granulosa cell (GC) proteome after chronic BPS exposure.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to decipher the mechanisms of action of chronic BPS exposure on the proteome of ewe GCs while considering the interaction between a deliberate contrasted metabolism and reproductive function.

METHODS

Forty ewes were split into two groups with contrasted diets: restricted (R, n = 20) and well-fed (WF, n = 20). The R and WF ewes were subdivided according to the dose of BPS administered through the diet (0-50 µg/kg/day), forming four groups: R0, R50, WF0 and WF50. After 3-month BPS daily exposure, GCs were recovered during the pre-ovulatory stage and proteins were analysed by nano-liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry.

RESULTS

Chronic exposure to BPS affected the GC proteome differently according to the ewe metabolic status. Fifty-nine out of 958 quantified proteins were differentially abundant between groups and are mainly involved in carbohydrate and lipid pathways. Unsupervised hierarchical clustering of differentially abundant proteins (DAPs) identified four clusters of 34, 6, 5 and 14 proteins according to the BPS exposure and diet interaction. Pairwise comparisons between groups also revealed a strong effect of BPS exposure and diet interaction. Functional analysis of DAPs highlighted that BPS upregulated β-glucuronidase (GUSB; p = 0.002), a protein especially able to deconjugate bisphenol glucuronides (BP-g). Moreover, among unexposed ewes, GUSB was detected only in well-fed ewes.

DISCUSSION

Conjugation of glucuronides inhibits the oestrogenic activity of bisphenols. Upregulation of GUSB in ewes dosed with BPS would prolong the oestrogenic effects of BPS by deconjugating BPS-g into free BPS. In addition, literature has reported an up-regulation of GUSB in people suffering from obesity. Therefore, people suffering from obesity could be subjected to prolonged and aggravated exposure to BPS. These data highlighted the deleterious effects of BPS and its interaction with metabolic status.

Bisphenol S exposure induces cardiac remodeling and aggravates high-fat diet-induced cardiac hypertrophy in mice

Bisphenol S (BPS) is widely used in the manufacture products and increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases. The effect of the association between obesity and BPS on cardiac outcomes is still unknown. Male C57BL/6 mice were divided into standard chow diet (SC; 15 kJ/g), standard chow diet + BPS (SCB), high-fat diet (HF; 21 kJ/g), and high-fat diet + BPS (HFB). Over 12 weeks, the groups were exposed to BPS through drinking water (dose: 25 μg/kg/day) and/or a HF diet. We evaluated: body mass (BM), total cholesterol, systolic blood pressure (SBP), left ventricle (LV) mass, and cardiac remodeling. In the SCB group, BM, total cholesterol, and SBP increase were augmented in relation to the SC group. In the HF and HFB groups, these parameters were higher than in the SC and SCB groups. Cardiac hypertrophy was evidenced by augmented LV mass and wall thickness, and ANP protein expression in all groups in comparison to the SC group. Only the HFB group had a thicker LV wall than SCB and HF groups, and increased cardiomyocyte area when compared with SC and SCB groups. Concerning cardiac fibrosis, SCB, HF, and HFB groups presented higher interstitial collagen area, TGFβ, and α-SMA protein expression than the SC group. Perivascular collagen area was increased only in the HF and HFB groups than SC group. Higher IL-6, TNFα, and CD11c protein expression in all groups than the SC group evidenced inflammation. All groups had elevated CD36 and PPARα protein expression in relation to the SC group, but only HF and HFB groups promoted cardiac steatosis with increased perilipin 5 protein expression than the SC group. BPS exposure alone promoted cardiac remodeling with pathological concentric hypertrophy, fibrosis, and inflammation. Diet-induced remodeling is aggravated when associated with BPS, with marked hypertrophy, alongside fibrosis, inflammation, and lipid accumulation.

Mitigating Dietary Bisphenol Exposure Through the Gut Microbiota: The Role of Next-Generation Probiotics in Bacterial Detoxification

Bisphenols, such as bisphenol A and its analogs, which include bisphenol S, bisphenol F, bisphenol AF, and tetramethyl bisphenol F, are chemical contaminants commonly found in food that raise serious health concerns. These xenobiotics can potentially have harmful effects on human health. The gut microbiota plays a crucial role in metabolizing and neutralizing these substances, which is essential for their detoxification and elimination. Probiotic supplementation has been studied for its ability to modulate the gut microbiota's composition and function, enhancing detoxification processes. Next-Generation Probiotics (NGPs) may exhibit better properties than traditional strains and are designed for targeted action on specific conditions, such as obesity. By modulating inflammatory responses and reducing the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines, they can significantly improve host health. Research on NGPs' ability to neutralize obesogenic bisphenols remains limited, but their potential makes this a promising area for future exploration. This review aims to understand the mechanisms of the chemical transformation of bisphenol through its interactions with the gut microbiota and the role of probiotics, particularly NGPs, in these processes. Understanding the interplay between bisphenols, gut microbiota, and NGPs may pave the way for strategies to counteract the negative health effects associated with daily and chronic exposure to bisphenols, which is crucial for food safety and consumer health protection.

Dietary bisphenols exposure as an influencing factor of body mass index

BACKGROUND

Over the past three decades, there has been a significant increase in the prevalence and incidence of overweight and obesity worldwide. The obesogen hypothesis suggests that certain external agents may affect pathways related to fat accumulation and energy balance by stimulating fat cell differentiation and proliferation. Previous research has indicated that exposure to bisphenol A (BPA) and some of its analogues may influence fat accumulation by promoting the transformation of preadipocytes into adipocytes. This study aimed to assess the possible contribution of dietary bisphenol exposure to the odds of developing overweight and obesity in a sample of Spanish children according to sex.

METHODS

Dietary and anthropometric data were collected from 179 controls and 124 cases schoolchildren aged 3-12 years. Dietary exposure to BPA and bisphenol S (BPS) was assessed using a food consumption frequency questionnaire. Logistic regression models were used to assess the influence of dietary exposure to bisphenols on overweight and obesity stratified by sex.

RESULTS

For females, cases had significantly higher exposure to BPA from meat and eggs compared to controls (median = 319.55, interquartile range (IQR) = 176.39-381.01 vs 231.79 (IQR) = 162.11-350.19, p-value = 0.046). Diet quality was higher for controls (6.21 (2.14) vs 4.80 (2.24) p < 0.001) among males independently of a high or low exposure to bisphenols. However, higher diet quality was observed for female controls with an high exposure of total bisphenols (6.79 (2.04) vs 5.33 (2.02) p = 0.031). Females exposed to high levels of BPA from meat and eggs had higher likelihood of being overweight and obese (adjusted Odds Ratio = 2.70, 95% confidence interval = 1.00 - 7.32). However, no consistent associations were found in males.

CONCLUSIONS

High BPA levels from meat and eggs were positively associated with overweight and obesity in females. The dietary intake of BPA in the schoolchildren in the present study was much higher than the acceptable daily intake established by EFSA for the last year.

Machine Learning-Based Toxicological Modeling for Screening Environmental Obesogens

The emerging presence of environmental obesogens, chemicals that disrupt energy balance and contribute to adipogenesis and obesity, has become a major public health challenge. Molecular initiating events (MIEs) describe biological outcomes resulting from chemical interactions with biomolecules. Machine learning models based on MIEs can predict complex toxic end points due to chemical exposure and improve the interpretability of models. In this study, a system was constructed that integrated six MIEs associated with adipogenesis and obesity. This system showed high accuracy in external validation, with an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of 0.78. Molecular hydrophobicity (SlogP_VSA) and direct electrostatic interactions (PEOE_VSA) were identified as the two most critical molecular descriptors representing the obesogenic potential of chemicals. This system was further used to predict the obesogenic effects of chemicals on the candidate list of substances of very high concern (SVHCs). Results from 3T3-L1 adipogenesis assays verified that the system correctly predicted obesogenic or nonobesogenic effects of 10 of the 12 SVHCs tested, and identified four novel potential obesogens, including 2-benzotriazol-2-yl-4,6-ditert-butylphenol (UV-320), 4-(1,1,5-trimethylhexyl)phenol (p262-NP), 2-[4-(1,1,3,3-tetramethylbutyl)phenoxy]ethanol (OP1EO) and endosulfan. These validation data suggest that the screening system has good performance in adipogenic prediction.

Photoaging enhances the leaching of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and transformation products from polyvinyl chloride microplastics into aquatic environments

Increasing chemical pollution is a threat to sustainable water resources worldwide. Plastics and harmful additives released from plastics add to this burden and might pose a risk to aquatic organisms, and human health. Phthalates, which are common plasticizers and endocrine-disrupting chemicals, are released from polyvinyl chloride (PVC) microplastics and are a cause of concern. Therefore, the leaching kinetics of additives, including the influence of environmental weathering, are key to assessing exposure concentrations but remain largely unknown. We show that photoaging strongly enhances the leaching rates of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) by a factor of 1.5, and newly-formed harmful transformation products, such as mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP), phthalic acid, and phthalic anhydride from PVC microplastics into the aquatic environment. Leaching half-lives of DEHP reduced from 449 years for pristine PVC to 121 years for photoaged PVC. Aqueous boundary layer diffusion (ABLD) is the limiting mass transfer process for the release of DEHP from pristine and photoaged PVC microplastics. The leaching of transformation products is limited by intraparticle diffusion (IPD). The calculated mass transfer rates can be used to predict exposure concentrations of harmful additives in the aquatic environment.

Production and characterization of the lipopeptide with anti-adhesion for oral biofilm on the surface of titanium for dental implants

Titanium implants are subject to bacterial adhesion and peri-implantitis induction, and biosurfactants bring a new alternative to the fight against infections. This work aimed to produce and characterize the biosurfactant from Bacillus subtilis ATCC 19,659, its anti-adhesion and antimicrobial activity, and cell viability. Anti-adhesion studies were carried out against Streptococcus sanguinis, Staphylococcus aureus, Fusobacterium nucleatum, Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans, Porphyromonas gingivalis, and Proteus mirabilis as the minimum inhibitory concentration and the minimum bactericidal concentration. Cell viability was measured against osteoblast and fibroblast cells. The biosurfactant was classified as lipopeptide, with critical micelle concentration at 40 µg mL- 1, and made the titanium surface less hydrophobic. The anti-adhesion effect was observed for Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus sanguinis with 54% growth inhibition and presented a minimum inhibitory concentration of 15.7 µg mL- 1 for Streptococcus sanguinis and Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans. The lipopeptide had no cytotoxic effect and demonstrated high potential application against bacterial biofilms.

Associations of prenatal exposure to bisphenols with infant anthropometry: A prospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

Bisphenols (BPs) have been shown to exhibit developmental toxicities. Epidemiological evidence on prenatal BPs exposure and infant growth primarily confined scopes to specific BPs and birth outcomes, with few studies focusing on infant growth and reporting inconsistent findings. The joint effect of prenatal exposure to BPs mixture on infant growth was rarely studied.

OBJECTIVE

This study examined associations of prenatal exposure to individual bisphenol A (BPA) and its analogues (bisphenol F [BPF], bisphenol S [BPS], bisphenol AF [BPAF], and tetrachlorobisphenol A [TCBPA]) and their mixture with infant growth.

METHODS

Urinary concentrations of BPs in pregnant women were quantified. Weight, body mass index, skinfold thickness, and circumference measurements of infants were collected at birth, 6 and 12 months of age, rapid growth and overweight were further defined. Multiple linear regression models and Bayesian kernel machine regression models (BKMR) were used to analyze associations of exposure to individual BPs and BPs mixture with infants' anthropometric measurements, and to identify the important components among mixture. The risks for rapid growth and overweight of each BP were determined using modified Poisson regression models.

RESULTS

A general profile of higher prenatal BPs exposure (mainly BPA, BPF, and BPS) associated with higher anthropometric measurements and higher risks of overweight during infancy was found. We also observed higher risks of rapid growth in infants following prenatal BPs exposure, with risk ratios ranging from 1.46 to 1.91. The joint effect of BPs mixture and single effect of each BP from the BKMR models were consistent with findings from the linear regression models, further suggesting that associations in girls were generally driven by BPA, BPF, or BPS, while in boys mainly by BPF.

CONCLUSION

Prenatal exposure to BPs and their mixture could increase anthropometric measurements of offspring during infancy, with implications of altered growth trajectory in future.

Lactiplantibacillus sp. D10-2: potential bacteria for eliminating bisphenol A and reducing BpA-induced lipid accumulation

Bisphenol A (BpA) is an endocrine-disrupting substance commonly found in plastics and resins. It is reported that BpA exposure induces lipid accumulation in humans, similar to obesogenic compounds. The main objective of this study is to investigate the removal of BpA using Lactiplantibacillus sp. D10-2, and to examine its potential for reducing BpA-induced lipid accumulation in 3T3-L1 cell line model. The heat-dried cells of Lactiplantibacillus sp. D10-2 showed 69.7% removal efficiency for initial BpA concentration of 10 μg/mL, which was 30.5% higher than the live cells. The absence of metabolites or intermediates in BpA removal studies indicates that the Lactiplantibacillus sp. D10-2 strain removed BpA by adsorption process. The hydrophobic interactions of heat-dried Lactiplantibacillus sp. D10-2 cells were observed to be higher with 33.7% compared to live cells (15.0%), suggesting a stronger ability to bind with BpA. Although the BpA binding onto Lactiplantibacillus sp. D10-2 was not affected by pH, it was confirmed that as the temperature increases, the binding ability got decreased due to mass transfer and diffusion of BpA molecules. Treatment with Lactiplantibacillus sp. D10-2 (0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 1%) reduced lipid accumulation by 61.7, 58.0, 52.7 and 60.4% in 3T3-L1 cells exposed with BpA. In addition, it was confirmed that Lactiplantibacillus sp. D10-2 treatment suppressed the protein expression levels of lipogenesis-related PPARγ and C/EBPα in 3T3-L1 cells. The results of the study suggest that the Lactiplantibacillus sp. D10-2 strain can remove BpA and reduce BpA-accelerated lipid accumulation in 3T3-L1 cells.

SWATH-MS reveals that bisphenol A and its analogs regulate pathways leading to disruption in insulin signaling and fatty acid metabolism

Bisphenol A (BPA) is an endocrine-disrupting chemical (EDC), associated with obesity and insulin resistance. The FDA prohibited the use of BPA-based polycarbonate resins in infant formula packaging; thus, its analogs, viz. Bisphenol S (BPS) and Bisphenol F (BPF) were considered alternatives in epoxy resins, plastics, and food cans. As these analogs might evoke a similar response, we investigated the role of Bisphenols (BPA, BPF, and BPS), on insulin signaling in CHO-HIRc-myc-GLUT4eGFP cells at environmentally relevant concentrations of 2 nM and 200 nM. Insulin signaling demonstrated that Bisphenols reduced phosphorylation of IR and AKT2, GLUT4 translocation, and glucose uptake. This was accompanied by increased oxidative stress. Furthermore, SWATH-MS-based proteomics of 3T3-L1 cells demonstrated that Bisphenol-treated cells regulate proteins in insulin resistance, adipogenesis, and fatty acid metabolism pathways differently. All three Bisphenols induced differentially expressed proteins enriched similar pathways, although their abundance differed for each Bisphenol. This might be due to their varying toxicity level, structural differences, and estrogen-mimetic activity. This study has important implications in addressing health concerns related to EDCs. Given that the analogs of BPA are considered alternatives to BPA, the findings of this study suggest they are equally potent in altering fatty acid metabolism and inducing insulin resistance.

Exposure characteristics and cumulative risk assessment of bisphenol A and its substitutes: the Taiwan environmental survey for toxicants 2013

Introduction

Ever since the use of bisphenol A (BPA) has been restricted, concerns have been raised regarding the use of its substitutes, such as bisphenol S (BPS) and bisphenol F (BPF). Meanwhile, the EU European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) issued the new tolerable daily intake (TDI) after the latest re-risk assessment for BPA, which enforced the need for cumulative risk assessment in the population. This study was conducted to identify BPA and its substitute's exposure characteristics of the general Taiwanese population and estimate the cumulative risk of bisphenol exposure.

Methods

Urine samples (N = 366 [adult, 271; minor, 95]) were collected from individuals who participated in the Taiwan Environmental Survey for Toxicants 2013. The samples were analyzed for BPA, BPS, and BPF through ultraperformance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Daily intake (DI) levels were calculated for each bisphenol. Hazard quotients (HQs) were calculated with the consideration of tolerable DI and a reference dose. Additionally, hazard index (HI; sum of HQs for each bisphenol) values were calculated.

Results

Our study found that the median level of BPA was significantly higher in adults (9.63 μg/g creatinine) than in minors (6.63 μg/g creatinine) (p < 0.001). The DI of BPS was higher in female (0.69 ng/kg/day) than in male (0.49 ng/kg/day); however, the DIs of BPF and BPS were higher in boys (1.15 and 0.26 ng/kg/day, respectively) than in girls (0.57 and 0.20 ng/kg/day, respectively). Most HI values exceeded 1 (99% of the participants) after EFSA re-establish the TDI of BPA.

Discussion

Our study revealed that the exposure profiles and risk of BPA and its substitute in Taiwanese varied by age and sex. Additionally, the exposure risk of BPA was deemed unacceptable in Taiwan according to new EFSA regulations, and food contamination could be the possible source of exposure. We suggest that the risk of exposure to BPA and its substitutes in most human biomonitoring studies should be reassessed based on new scientific evidence.

Relationship of bisphenol A substitutes bisphenol F and bisphenol S with adiponectin/leptin ratio among children from the environment and development of children cohort

BACKGROUND

Bisphenol A (BPA) is known as an obesogenic endocrine disruptor. Bisphenol S (BPS) and F (BPF) are substitutes that have recently replaced BPA.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the relationships of urinary bisphenols (BPA, BPS and BPF) with adiposity measurements (obesity, BMI z-score, and fat mass), serum adipokine levels (adiponectin and leptin), and adiponectin/leptin ratio (A/L ratio) in 6- and 8-year-old children.

METHODS

A total of 561 children who participated in the Environment and Development of Children cohort (482 and 516 children visited at age 6 and 8, respectively) at Seoul National University Children's Hospital during 2015-2019 were included. Urinary BPA levels were log-transformed. BPS levels were categorized into three groups (non-detected, lower-half, and higher-half of detected), and BPF levels were classified into two groups (non-detected and detected).

RESULTS

The urinary BPS higher-half group had a higher BMI z-score (β = 0.160, P= 0.044), higher fat mass (β = 0.104, P< 0.001), lower adiponectin concentration (β =- 0.069, P< 0.001), higher leptin concentration (β = 0.360, P< 0.001), and lower A/L ratio (β =- 0.428, P< 0.001) compared with the non-detected group. The urinary BPF-detected group had a higher fat mass (β = 0.074, P< 0.001), lower adiponectin concentration (β =- 0.069, P< 0.001), higher leptin concentration (β = 0.360, P< 0.001), and lower A/L ratio (β =- 0.428, P< 0.001) compared with the non-detected group. The BPA levels showed no consistent associations with outcomes, except for isolated associations of BPA at age 6 with a higher BMI z-score at age 6 (P= 0.016) and leptin at age 8 (P= 0.021).

CONCLUSIONS

Increased exposure to BPS and BPF is associated with higher fat mass and leptin concentration, lower serum adiponectin, and lower A/L ratio in children. These findings suggest potential adverse effects of BPA substitutes on adiposity and adipokines. No consistent association of BPA exposure with outcomes could be partly explained by the decreasing BPA levels over time.

The Role of Endocrine Disruptors Bisphenols and Phthalates in Obesity: Current Evidence, Perspectives and Controversies

Excess body weight constitutes one of the major health challenges for societies and healthcare systems worldwide. Besides the type of diet, calorie intake and the lack of physical exercise, recent data have highlighted a possible association between endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), such as bisphenol A, phthalates and their analogs, and obesity. EDCs represent a heterogeneous group of chemicals that may influence the hormonal regulation of body mass and adipose tissue morphology. Based on the available data from mechanistic, animal and epidemiological studies including meta-analyses, the weight of evidence points towards the contribution of EDCs to the development of obesity, associated disorders and obesity-related adipose tissue dysfunction by (1) impacting adipogenesis; (2) modulating epigenetic pathways during development, enhancing susceptibility to obesity; (3) influencing neuroendocrine signals responsible for appetite and satiety; (4) promoting a proinflammatory milieu in adipose tissue and inducing a state of chronic subclinical inflammation; (5) dysregulating gut microbiome and immune homeostasis; and (6) inducing dysfunction in thermogenic adipose tissue. Critical periods of exposure to obesogenic EDCs are the prenatal, neonatal, pubertal and reproductive periods. Interestingly, EDCs even at low doses may promote epigenetic transgenerational inheritance of adult obesity in subsequent generations. The aim of this review is to summarize the available evidence on the role of obesogenic EDCs, specifically BPA and phthalate plasticizers, in the development of obesity, taking into account in vitro, animal and epidemiologic studies; discuss mechanisms linking EDCs to obesity; analyze the effects of EDCs on obesity in critical chronic periods of exposure; and present interesting perspectives, challenges and preventive measures in this research area.

Unravelling the Influence of Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals on Obesity Pathophysiology Pathways

Obesity represents a global health concern, affecting individuals of all age groups across the world. The prevalence of excess weight and obesity has escalated to pandemic proportions, leading to a substantial increase in the incidence of various comorbidities, such as cardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes, and cancer. This chapter seeks to provide a comprehensive exploration of the pathways through which endocrine-disrupting chemicals can influence the pathophysiology of obesity. These mechanisms encompass aspects such as the regulation of food intake and appetite, intestinal fat absorption, lipid metabolism, and the modulation of inflammation. This knowledge may help to elucidate the role of exogenous molecules in both the aetiology and progression of obesity.

Sex-specific associations of bisphenol A and its substitutes with body fat distribution among US adults: NHANES 2011-2016

Bisphenol A (BPA) and its structural analogs (bisphenol S (BPS) and bisphenol F (BPF)) are widely consumed endocrine disrupting chemicals that may contribute to the etiology of obesity. To date, few studies have directly investigated the sex-related associations between bisphenols and body fat distribution in adults. In this study, we included 2669 participants from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2011-2016 to evaluate and compare sex-specific differences of the associations of BPA, BPS, and BPF with body fat distribution. We found that there were significant positive correlations between BPS and body fat indices (STFAT [adjustedβ=1.94, 95% CI: (0.24, 3.64)], TAF [0.18 (0.04, 0.32)], SAT [0.15 (0.03, 0.27)], android fat mass [0.20 (0.004, 0.40)], BMI [1.63 (0.61, 2.65)], and WC [3.19 (0.64, 5.73)] in the highest quartiles of BPS), but not in BPA and BPF. Stratified analyses suggested that the significant associations of BPS with body fat indices were stronger in women than men (STFAT [adjustedβ=3.75, 95% CI: (1.04, 6.45) vs. adjustedβ=-0.06, 95% CI: (-2.23, 2.11), P for interaction < 0.001], TAF [ 0.32 (0.09, 0.54) vs. 0.01 (-0.17, 0.19), P for interaction < 0.001], SAT [0.27 (0.09, 0.45) vs. 0.01 (-0.14, 0.16), P for interaction < 0.001], android fat mass [0.41 (0.12, 0.71) vs. -0.02 (-0.28, 0.24), P for interaction < 0.001], gynoid fat mass [0.56 (0.11, 1.01) vs. -0.05 (-0.41, 0.31), P for interaction = 0.002], BMI [2.76 (1.08, 4.44) vs. 0.47 (-0.80, 1.74), P for interaction < 0.001], and WC [5.51 (1.44, 9.58) vs. 0.61 (-2.67, 3.88), P for interaction < 0.001]), and positive associations between BPS with fat distribution were also observed in non-smoking women. Our study indicated that in women, higher concentration of urinary BPS was associated with increased body fat accumulation, except for visceral adipose tissue mass. These findings emphasize the role of environmental BPS exposure in the increasing fat deposits, and confirm the need for more prospective cohort studies on a sex-specific manner.

Estrogens and endocrine-disrupting chemicals differentially impact the bioenergetic fluxes of mammary epithelial cells in two- and three-dimensional models

Due to its sensitivity to hormonal signaling, the mammary gland is often referred to as a sentinel organ for the study of endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), environmental pollutants that can interfere with the estrogen signaling pathway and induce mammary developmental defects. If and how EDCs impact mammary epithelial cell metabolism has not yet been documented. Herein, to study how estrogens and EDCs modulate mammary gland metabolism, we performed bioenergetic flux analyses using mouse mammary epithelial organoids compared to cells grown in monolayer culture. Several EDCs were tested, including bisphenol A (BPA), its close derivative BPS, a new BPA replacement copolyester called TritanTM, and the herbicide glyphosate. We report that estrogens reprogrammed mammary epithelial cell metabolism differently when grown in two- and three-dimensional models. Specific EDCs were also demonstrated to alter bioenergetic fluxes, thus identifying a new potential adverse effect of these molecules. Notably, organoids were more sensitive to low EDC concentrations, highlighting them as a key model for screening the impact of various environmental pollutants. Mechanistically, transcriptomic analyses revealed that EDCs interfered with the regulation of estrogen target genes and the expression of metabolic genes in organoids. Furthermore, co-treatment with the anti-estrogen fulvestrant blocked these metabolic impacts of EDCs, suggesting that, at least partially, they act through modulation of the estrogen receptor activity. Finally, we demonstrate that mammary organoids can be used for long-term studies on EDC exposure to study alterations in organogenesis/morphogenesis and that past pregnancies can modulate the sensitivity of mammary epithelial organoids to specific EDCs. Overall, this study demonstrates that estrogens and EDCs modulate mammary epithelial cell metabolism in monolayer and organoid cultures. A better understanding of the metabolic impacts of EDCs will allow a better appreciation of their adverse effects on mammary gland development and function.

β-Cyclodextrin functionalized magnetic polyamine-amine dendrimers for high enrichment and effective analysis of trace bisphenolic pollutants in beverages

Bisphenols (BPs) are typical endocrine disruptors, which can cause great effects on environmental, organisms and human health. In this study, β-Cyclodextrin (β-CD) functionalized polyamidoamine dendrimers-modified Fe₃O₄ nanomaterials (MNPs@PAMAM (G3.0)@β-CD) were facilely synthesized. It exhibited good adsorption capacities for BPs, which was utilized to construct a sensitive tool in combination with high performance liquid chromatography for monitoring BPs such as bisphenol A (BPA), tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), bisphenol S (BPS), bisphenol AF (BPAF) and bisphenol AP (BPAP) in beverage samples. The factors affecting the enrichment were examined such as generation of adsorbent, dosage of adsorbent, type and volume of eluting solvent, elution time and pH value of sample solution. The optimal parameters for enrichment was as follows: dosage of adsorbent, 60 mg; adsorption time, 50min; sample pH, pH7; elutent, 9 mL mixture of methanol and acetone(1:1); elution time, 6min; sample volume, 60 mL. The experimental results demonstrated that the adsorption conformed to pseudo-second-order kinetic model and Langmuir adsorption isotherm model. The results showed the maximum adsorption capacities of BPS, TBBPA, BPA, BPAF and BPAP were 131.80 μgg^-1, 139.84 μgg^-1, 157.08 μgg^-1, 142.11 μgg^-1 and 134.23 μgg^-1, respectively. Under optimal conditions, BPS had good linear relationship over range from of 0.5-300 μgL^-1, and the linear ranges of BPA, TBBPA, BPAF and BPAP ranged from 0.1 to 300 μgL^-1. The limits of detection (S/N = 3) for BPs were good in range of 0.016-0.039 μgL^-1. The spiked recoveries of target bisphenols (BPs) in beverages were approving over range from 92.3% to 99.2%. The established method possessed merits of easy to operate, good sensitivity, rapidness as well as environmental friendliness, and which earned great application potential for the enrichment and detection of trace BPs in practical samples.

Dermal exposure to bisphenols in pregnant women's and baby clothes: Risk characterization

Textile manufacturing consists of a multiple-step process in which a wide range of chemicals is used, some of them remaining in the final product. Bisphenols (BPs) are non-intentionally added compounds in textiles, whose prolonged skin contact may mean a significant source of daily human exposure, especially in vulnerable groups of the population. The present study aimed to determine the levels of bisphenol A (BPA) and some BP analogs (BPB, BPF, and BPS) in 120 new clothes commercialized in Spain for pregnant women, newborns, and toddlers. In addition, exposure assessment and risk characterization were also carried out. Traces of BPA were found in all the samples, with a median concentration of 7.43 ng/g. The highest values were detected in textile samples made of polyester. Regarding natural fibers, higher concentrations of BPs were observed in garments made of conventional cotton than in those made of organic cotton, with a significant difference for BPS (1.24 vs. 0.76 ng/g, p < 0.05). Although toddlers have a larger skin-area-to-body-weight ratio, pregnant women showed higher exposure to BPs than children. Anyhow, the non-carcinogenic risks associated with BPA exposure were below the unity, even under the upper-bound scenario. However, risks could be underestimated because other exposure routes were not considered in this study. The use of BPA has been restricted in some food-related products; therefore, BPA should also be regulated in the textile industry.

Mechanism of Bisphenol F Affecting Motor System and Motor Activity in Zebrafish

Bisphenol F (BPF; 4,4'-dihydroxydiphenylmethane) is one of the most frequently used compounds in the manufacture of plastics and epoxy resins. Previous studies have demonstrated that BPF affects locomotor behavior, oxidative stress, and neurodevelopment in zebrafish. However, its neurotoxic effects are controversial, and the underlying mechanisms are unclear. In order to determine whether BPF affects the motor system, we exposed zebrafish embryos to BPF and assessed behavioral, histological, and neurochemical changes. Spontaneous locomotor behavior and startle response were significantly decreased in BPF-treated zebrafish larvae compared with control larvae. BPF induced motor degeneration and myelination defects in zebrafish larvae. In addition, embryonic exposure to BPF resulted in altered metabolic profiles of neurochemicals, including neurotransmitters and neurosteroids, which may impact locomotion and motor function. In conclusion, exposure to BPF has the potential to affect survival, motor axon length, locomotor activity, myelination, and neurochemical levels of zebrafish larvae.

Preconceptional exposure of adult male rats to bisphenol S impairs insulin sensitivity and glucose tolerance in their male offspring

Since the use of bisphenol A (BPA) has been restricted because of its endocrine disruptor properties, bisphenol S (BPS) has been widely used as a substitute of BPA. However, BPS exerts similar effects on metabolic health as BPA. The effects of maternal exposure to BPA and BPS on the metabolic health of offspring have been largely documented during the past decade. However, the impact of preconceptional paternal exposure to BPS on progenies remains unexplored. In this study we investigated the impact of paternal exposure to BPS before conception, on the metabolic phenotype of offspring. Male Wistar rats were administered BPS through drinking water at the dose of 4 μg/kg/day (BPS-4 sires) or 40 μg/kg/day (BPS-40 sires) for 2 months before mating with females. The progenies (F1) were studied at fetal stage and in adulthood. We showed that preconceptional paternal exposure to BPS for 2 months did not alter the metabolic status of sires. The female offspring of sires exposed to lower or higher doses of BPS showed no alteration of their metabolic phenotype compared to females from control sires. In contrast, male offspring of BPS-4 sires exhibited increased body weight and body fat/lean ratio, decreased insulin sensitivity and increased glucose-induced insulin secretion at adult age, compared to the male offspring of control sires. Moreover, male offspring of BPS-4 sires developed glucose intolerance later in life. None of these effects were apparent in male offspring of BPS-40 sires. In conclusion, our study provides the first evidence of the non-monotonic and sex-specific effects of preconceptional paternal exposure to BPS on the metabolic health of offspring, suggesting that BPS is not a safe BPA substitute regarding the inter-generational transmission of metabolic disorders through the paternal lineage.

Evaluation of toxicological effects of bisphenol S with an in vitro human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell: Implications for bone health

As the use of bisphenol A (BPA) has been restricted in consumer products, bisphenol S (BPS) is one major alternative to BPA for various materials, leading to growing concerns about its health risks in human beings. However, little is known about the toxic effects of BPS on bone health. We employed human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (hBMSCs) for the in vitro assessment of BPS on cell proliferation, differentiation, and self-renewal. Our study revealed that BPS at concentrations of 10^-10-10^-7 M increased cell viability but induced the morphological changes of hBMSCs. Moreover, BPS decreased ROS generation and increased Nrf2 expression. Furthermore, BPS not only activated ERα/β expression but also increased β-catenin expression and induced the replicative senescence of hBMSCs. Furthermore, we found that the upregulation of β-catenin induced by BPS was mediated, in part, by ER signaling. Overall, our results suggested BPS exposure caused the homeostatic imbalance of hBMSCs.

Unravelling sex-specific BPA toxicokinetics in children using a pediatric PBPK model

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a widely known endocrine disruptor (ED) found in many children's products such as toys, feeding utensils, and teething rings. Recent epidemiology association studies have shown postnatal BPA exposure resulted in developing various diseases such as diabetes, obesity, and neurodegeneration, etc., later in their lives. However, little is known about its sex-specific metabolism and consequently internal exposure. The aim of this study was to develop a sex-specific pediatric physiologically based pharmacokinetic model (PBPK) for BPA to compare their toxicokinetic differences. First, the published adult PBPK model was re-validated, and then this model was extended by interpolation to incorporate pediatric sex specific physiological and biochemical parameters. We used both the classical body weight and ontogeny-based scaling approach to interpolate the metabolic process. Then, the pharmacokinetic attributes of the models using the two-scaling approach mentioned above were compared with adult model. Further, a sex-specific PBPK model with an ontogeny scaling approach was preferred to evaluate the pharmacokinetic differences. Moreover, this model was used to reconstruct the BPA exposure from two cohorts (Helix and PBAT Cohort) from 7 EU countries. The half-life of BPA was found to be almost the same in boys and girls at the same exposure levels. Our model estimated BPA children's exposure to be about 1500 times higher than the tolerable daily intake (TDI) recently set by European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) i.e., 0.04 ng/kg BW/day. The model demonstrated feasibility of extending the adult PBPK to sex-specific pediatric, thus investigate a gender-specific health risk assessment.

Exposure to Bisphenol A Substitutes, Bisphenol S and Bisphenol F, and Its Association with Developing Obesity and Diabetes Mellitus: A Narrative Review

Bisphenol A, a well-known endocrine-disrupting chemical, has been replaced with its analogs bisphenol S (BPS) and bisphenol F (BPF) over the last decade due to health concerns. BPS and BPF are present in relatively high concentrations in different products, such as food products, personal care products, and sales receipts. Both BPS and BPF have similar structural and chemical properties to BPA; therefore, considerable scientific efforts have investigated the safety of their exposure. In this review, we summarize the findings of relevant epidemiological studies investigating the association between urinary concentrations of BPS and/or BPF with the incidence of obesity or diabetes. The results showed that BPS and BPF were detected in many urinary samples at median concentrations ranging from 0.03 to 0.4 µg·L-1. At this exposure level, BPS median urinary concentrations (0.4 µg·L-1) were associated with the development of obesity. At a lower exposure level (0.1-0.03 µg·L-1), two studies showed an association with developing diabetes. For BPF exposure, only one study showed an association with obesity. However, most of the reported studies only assessed BPS exposure levels. Furthermore, we also summarize the findings of experimental studies in vivo and in vitro regarding our aim; results support the possible obesogenic effects/metabolic disorders mediated by BPS and/or BPF exposure. Unexpectedly, BPS may promote worse obesogenic effects than BPA. In addition, the possible mode of action underlying the obesogenic effects of BPS might be attributed to various pathophysiological mechanisms, including estrogenic or androgenic activities, alterations in the gene expression of critical adipogenesis-related markers, and induction of oxidative stress and an inflammatory state. Furthermore, susceptibility to the adverse effects of BPS may be altered by sex differences according to the results of both epidemiological and experimental studies. However, the possible mode of action underlying these sex differences is still unclear. In conclusion, exposure to BPS or BPF may promote the development of obesity and diabetes. Future approaches are highly needed to assess the safety of BPS and BPF regarding their potential effects in promoting metabolic disturbances. Other studies in different populations and settings are highly suggested.

Plant species compositions alleviate toxicological effects of bisphenol A by enhancing growth, antioxidant defense system, and detoxification

Bisphenol A (BPA), a broadly disseminated endocrine disturbing chemicals in environment, is harmful to creatures and plants. Plants can uptake and metabolize BPA, but a single plant species ability is limited. Undeniably, plant species compositions have a more vital ability to remove pollutants than a single plant species. However, the mechanisms of plant species compositions alleviating toxicological effects of bisphenol A are poorly understood. Here, we administered plant species compositions, which based on a full-factorial design of Phragmites australis (A), Typha latifolia (B), and Arundo donax (C), to unveil their role in BPA exposure. The results illustrated that the root activity, biomass, and photosynthetic pigment contents of the mixed hydroponic group (e.g., sp(ABC)) were significantly increased under concentration of BPA(1.5, 5, and 10 mg L^-1), which showed that the root activity, fresh weight, dry weight, chlorophyll a, and total chlorophyll contents of shoots were increased. While mixed-hydroponic culture groups (e.g., sp(AB), sp(ABC)) significantly increased antioxidant enzyme activity and antioxidant substances under concentration of BPA(5 and 10 mg L^-1), it astoundingly diminished responsive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde (MDA) substance, proposing that mixed-hydroponic culture groups calmed oxidative stress. Further analysis revealed that mixed-hydroponic culture groups (e.g., sp(AB), sp(AC), sp(ABC)) of 1.5, 5, and 10 mg L^-1 BPA exposure significantly increased detoxification enzyme activity of NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase (CPR), glutathione S-transferase (GST), and glycosyltransferase (GT). Moreover, mixed-hydroponic culture groups (e.g., sp(AB), sp(AC), sp(ABC)) decreased the BPA substance in leaves, proposing that mixed-hydroponic culture groups advanced BPA metabolism by improving CPR, GST, and GT enzyme activities. These results demonstrated that a mixed-hydroponic culture strategy can alleviate BPA phytotoxicity and possibly offer natural and potential phytoremediation methods for BPA.

Survey on endocrine-disrupting chemicals in seafood: Occurrence and distribution

Currently, the presence of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) in the marine environment pose а potential risk to both wildlife and human health. The occurrence of EDCs in seafood depends of several factors such as source and amounts of EDCs that reach the aquatic environment, physicochemical features of EDCs, and its accumulation in trophic chain. This review highlights the occurrence and distribution of EDCs along the seafood in the last 6 years. The following EDCs were included in this review: brominated flame retardants (PBDEs, PBBs, HBCDDs, TBBPA, and novel flame retardants); pharmaceuticals (paracetamol, ibuprofen, diclofenac, carbamazepine), bisphenols, hormones, personal care products (Musk and UV Filters), and pesticides (organochlorides, organophosphates, and pyrethroids). Some of them were found above the threshold that may cause negative effects on human, animal, and environmental health. More control in some countries, as well as new legislation and inspection over the purchase, sale, use, and production of these compounds, are urgently needed. This review provides data to support risk assessment and raises critical gaps to stimulate and improve future research.

Bisphenol F exposure affects mouse oocyte in vitro maturation through inducing oxidative stress and DNA damage

Bisphenol F (BPF), a substitute for bisphenol A (BPA), is progressively used to manufacture various consumer products. Despite the established reproductive toxicity of BPF, the underlying mechanisms remain to elucidate. This in-vitro study deep in sighted the BPF toxicity on mouse oocyte meiotic maturation and quality. After treating oocytes with BPF (300 μM), the oocyte meiotic progression was blocked, accentuated by a reduced rate in the first polar body extrusion (PBE). Next, we illustrated that BPF induced α-tubulin hyper-acetylation disrupted the spindle assembly and chromosome alignment. Concurrently, BPF resulted in severe oxidative stress and DNA damage, which triggered the early apoptosis in mouse oocytes. Further, altered epigenetic modifications following BPF exposure were proved by increased H3K27me3 levels. Concerning the toxic effects on spindle structure, oxidative stress, and DNA damage in mouse oocytes, BPF toxicity was less severe to oocyte maturation and spindle structure than BPA and induced low oxidative stress. However, compared with BPA, oocytes treated with BPF were more prone to DNA damage, indicating not less intense or even more severe toxic effects of BPF than BPA on some aspects of oocytes maturation. In brief, the present study established that like wise to BPA, BPF could inhibit meiotic maturation and reduce oocyte quality, suggesting it is not a safe substitute for BPA.

The Mixture of Bisphenol-A and Its Substitutes Bisphenol-S and Bisphenol-F Exerts Obesogenic Activity on Human Adipose-Derived Stem Cells

Bisphenol A (BPA) and its substitutes, bisphenol F (BPF) and S (BPS), have previously shown in vitro obesogenic activity. This study was designed to investigate their combined effect on the adipogenic differentiation of human adipose-derived stem cells (hASCs). Cells were exposed for 14 days to an equimolar mixture of bisphenols (MIX) (range 10 nM–10 µM). Oil Red staining was used to measure intracellular lipid accumulation, quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) to study gene expression of adipogenic markers (PPARγ, C/EBPα, LPL, and FABP4), and Western Blot to determine their corresponding proteins. The MIX promoted intracellular lipid accumulation in a dose-dependent manner with a maximal response at 10 µM. Co-incubation with pure antiestrogen (ICI 182,780) inhibited lipid accumulation, suggesting that the effect was mediated by the estrogen receptor. The MIX also significantly altered the expression of PPARγ, C/EBPα, LPL, and FABP4 markers, observing a non-monotonic (U-shaped) dose-response, with maximal gene expression at 10 nM and 10 µM and lesser expression at 1 µM. This pattern was not observed when bisphenols were tested individually. Exposure to MIX (1–10 µM) also increased all encoded proteins except for FABP4, which showed no changes. Evaluation of the combined effect of relevant chemical mixtures is needed rather than single chemical testing.

Obesity II: Establishing causal links between chemical exposures and obesity

Obesity is a multifactorial disease with both genetic and environmental components. The prevailing view is that obesity results from an imbalance between energy intake and expenditure caused by overeating and insufficient exercise. We describe another environmental element that can alter the balance between energy intake and energy expenditure: obesogens. Obesogens are a subset of environmental chemicals that act as endocrine disruptors affecting metabolic endpoints. The obesogen hypothesis posits that exposure to endocrine disruptors and other chemicals can alter the development and function of the adipose tissue, liver, pancreas, gastrointestinal tract, and brain, thus changing the set point for control of metabolism. Obesogens can determine how much food is needed to maintain homeostasis and thereby increase the susceptibility to obesity. The most sensitive time for obesogen action is in utero and early childhood, in part via epigenetic programming that can be transmitted to future generations. This review explores the evidence supporting the obesogen hypothesis and highlights knowledge gaps that have prevented widespread acceptance as a contributor to the obesity pandemic. Critically, the obesogen hypothesis changes the narrative from curing obesity to preventing obesity.

Association between dietary exposure to bisphenols and body mass index in Spanish schoolchildren

The increase in children obesity worldwide has been of particular concern in recent decades. Environmental factors have been proposed as contributors to obesity, and there is a growing concern over obesogens, environmental chemicals with potential obesity‐related endocrine‐disrupting properties. In this regard, bisphenol A (BPA) and its analogues are suspected to have obesogenic properties. Current document report on the activities of the fellow, undertaken during the fourth, 2020–2021 cycle of the EU‐FORA programme at the University of Granada, Institute of Nutrition and Food Science, in Spain. The work programme offered by the hosting site was related to the extrapolation of bisphenols exposure following the determination of these compounds in food frequently consumed by children and in their biological samples. The fellow has participated in the recruitment of the study population in the health centres. In addition, she has participated in the collection of the children biological samples, anthropometric measurements and dietary surveys and in the optimisation of the laboratory methodology for the extraction of bisphenols in biological samples. All these activities also provided the fellow an opportunity to develop her data science related skills, which will benefit her professional development. In addition, the fellow gained an overview of various topics related to food safety risk assessment by attending the EU‐FORA dedicated training modules.

Adipogenic Activity of Chemicals Used in Plastic Consumer Products

Bisphenols and phthalates, chemicals frequently used in plastic products, promote obesity in cell and animal models. However, these well-known metabolism-disrupting chemicals (MDCs) represent only a minute fraction of all compounds found in plastics. To gain a comprehensive understanding of plastics as a source of exposure to MDCs, we characterized the chemicals present in 34 everyday products using nontarget high-resolution mass spectrometry and analyzed their joint adipogenic activities by high-content imaging. We detected 55,300 chemical features and tentatively identified 629 unique compounds, including 11 known MDCs. Importantly, the chemicals extracted from one-third of the products caused murine 3T3-L1 preadipocytes to proliferate, and differentiate into adipocytes, which were larger and contained more triglycerides than those treated with the reference compound rosiglitazone. Because the majority of plastic extracts did not activate the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ and the glucocorticoid receptor, the adipogenic effects are mediated via other mechanisms and, thus, likely to be caused by unknown MDCs. Our study demonstrates that daily-use plastics contain potent mixtures of MDCs and can, therefore, be a relevant yet underestimated environmental factor contributing to obesity.

The Role of Persistent Organic Pollutants in Obesity: A Review of Laboratory and Epidemiological Studies

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are considered as potential obesogens that may affect adipose tissue development and functioning, thus promoting obesity. However, various POPs may have different mechanisms of action. The objective of the present review is to discuss the key mechanisms linking exposure to POPs to adipose tissue dysfunction and obesity. Laboratory data clearly demonstrate that the mechanisms associated with the interference of exposure to POPs with obesity include: (a) dysregulation of adipogenesis regulators (PPARγ and C/EBPα); (b) affinity and binding to nuclear receptors; (c) epigenetic effects; and/or (d) proinflammatory activity. Although in vivo data are generally corroborative of the in vitro results, studies in living organisms have shown that the impact of POPs on adipogenesis is affected by biological factors such as sex, age, and period of exposure. Epidemiological data demonstrate a significant association between exposure to POPs and obesity and obesity-associated metabolic disturbances (e.g., type 2 diabetes mellitus and metabolic syndrome), although the existing data are considered insufficient. In conclusion, both laboratory and epidemiological data underline the significant role of POPs as environmental obesogens. However, further studies are required to better characterize both the mechanisms and the dose/concentration-response effects of exposure to POPs in the development of obesity and other metabolic diseases.

Bisphenol F suppresses insulin-stimulated glucose metabolism in adipocytes by inhibiting IRS-1/PI3K/AKT pathway

Obesity is one of the risk factors of metabolic diseases. Decreased sensitivity to insulin or impairment of the insulin signaling pathway may affect the metabolism of adipose tissue. Bisphenol F (BPF) has been widely used in various products as a substitute for bisphenol A (BPA). BPA has been defined as "obesogen". However, knowledge about the correlation between BPF and obesity is very limited. This study was aimed to explore the effects of BPF on glucose metabolism and insulin sensitivity in mammalian tissues, using a mouse 3T3-L1 adipocyte line as the model. Differentiated 3T3-L1 adipocytes were treated with BPF at various concentrations for 24 h or 48 h, followed by the measurement of cell viability, lipid accumulation, expression levels of adipocytokines, glucose consumption, and impairment of the insulin signaling pathway. The results indicated that BPF had no effect on the size of 3T3-L1 adipocytes, but the expression of leptin, adiponectin and apelin was decreased, while that of chemerin and resistin was increased after 48 h of BPF treatment. Moreover, BPF inhibited the glucose consumption, the expression of GLUT4, and its translocation to the plasma membranes in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Western blot analysis indicated that the activation of IRS-1/PI3K/AKT signaling pathway was inhibited by BPF, which resulted in reduced GLUT4 translocation. In conclusion, our data suggest that exposure of adipocytes to BPF may alter the expression of calorie metabolism-related adipokines and suppress insulin-stimulated glucose metabolism by impairing the insulin signaling (IRS-1/PI3K/AKT) pathway.

Alternatives for the worse: Molecular insights into adverse effects of bisphenol a and substitutes during human adipocyte differentiation

Bisphenol A (BPA), which is used in a variety of consumer-related plastic products, was reported to cause adverse effects, including disruption of adipocyte differentiation, interference with obesity mechanisms, and impairment of insulin- and glucose homeostasis. Substitute compounds are increasingly emerging but are not sufficiently investigated.We aimed to investigate the mode of action of BPA and four of its substitutes during the differentiation of human preadipocytes to adipocytes and their molecular interaction with peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ), a pivotal regulator of adipogenesis.Binding and effective biological activation of PPARγ were investigated by surface plasmon resonance and reporter gene assay, respectively. Human preadipocytes were continuously exposed to BPA, BPS, BPB, BPF, BPAF, and the PPARγ-antagonist GW9662. After 12 days of differentiation, lipid production was quantified via Oil Red O staining, and global protein profiles were assessed using LC-MS/MS-based proteomics. All tested bisphenols bound to human PPARγ with similar efficacy as the natural ligand 15d-PGJ2in vitroand provoked an antagonistic effect on PPARγ in the reporter gene assay at non-cytotoxic concentrations. During the differentiation of human preadipocytes, all bisphenols decreased lipid production. Global proteomics displayed a down-regulation of adipogenesis and metabolic pathways, similar to GW9662. Interestingly, pro-inflammatory pathways were up-regulated, MCP1 release was increased, and adiponectin decreased. pAKT/AKT ratios revealed significantly reduced insulin sensitivity by BPA, BPB, and BPS upon insulin stimulation.Thus, our results show that not only BPA but also its substitutes disrupt crucial metabolic functions and insulin signaling in adipocytes under low, environmentally relevant concentrations. This effect, mediated through inhibition of PPARγ, may promote hypertrophy of adipose tissue and increase the risk of developing metabolic syndrome, including insulin resistance.

Urinary bisphenol levels in plastic industry workers

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a known endocrine disruptor compound that is widely applied as a monomer base in polycarbonate plastics and as a binding agent in several epoxy resins. Plastic industry workers have usually heavier and prolonged exposures to BPA. Hence, the present work aims to assess the levels of BPA and their analogs (S, F, B, AF, Z, E, and AP) in 170 urine samples from a cross-sectional study of workers from a plastic industry located in north Constantine (Algeria). This work was complemented with a questionnaire about sexual functions and evaluation of sexual hormone levels. The results showed a stable presence of BPA (average of 3.24 μg/L), accounting for more than 90% of the total BPs. Of the remaining BP analogs, only trace amounts of BPB were detected in three samples (average of 2.73 μg/L). Significant associations with BPA urinary levels were noted with age (p = 0.006), occupational level of exposure (p = 0.023), and years of experience (p = 0.001).

Endocrine disrupting chemicals: Friend or foe to brown and beige adipose tissue?

The effects of Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs) on the current obesity epidemic is a growing field of interest. Numerous EDCs have shown the potential to alter energy metabolism, which may increase the risk of obesity, in part, through direct actions on adipose tissue. While white adipose tissue has historically been the primary focus of this work, evidence of the EDC-induced disruption of brown and beige adipose tissues continues to build. Both brown and beige fat are thermogenic adipose depots rich in mitochondria that dispense heat when activated. Due to these properties, brown and beige fat are implicated in metabolic diseases such as obesity, diabetes, and cachexia. This review delves into the current literature of different EDCs, including bisphenols, dioxins, air pollutants, phthalates, and phytochemicals. The possible implications that these EDCs have on thermogenic adipose tissues are covered. This review also introduces the possibility of using brown and beige fat as a therapeutic target organ by taking advantage of some of the properties of EDCs. Collectively, we provide a comprehensive discussion of the evidence of EDC disruption in white, brown, and beige fat and highlight gaps worthy of further exploration.

Drivers of owning more BPA

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a ubiquitous environmental toxin worldwide. Despite the many studies documenting the toxicity of this substance, it remains a popular choice for consumer products. The internet, magazine articles, and newspaper reports are replete with tips on how to avoid BPA exposure, which mostly spread contradictory and often unscientific information. Therefore, based on a comprehensive search of the available biomedical literature, we summarized several confounding factors that may be directly or indirectly related to human BPA exposure. We found that the unique properties of BPA materials (i.e. low cost, light-weight, resistance to corrosion, and water/air-tightness), lack of personal health and hygiene education, fear of BPA-substitutes (with yet unknown risks), inappropriate production, processing, and marketing of materials containing BPA, as well as the state of regulatory guidance are influencing the increased exposure to BPA. Besides, we detailed the disparities between scientifically derived safe dosages of BPA and those designated as "safe" by government regulatory agencies. Therefore, in addition to providing a current assessment of the states of academic research, government policies, and consumer behaviors, we make several reasonable and actionable recommendations for limiting human exposure to BPA through improved labeling, science-based dosage limits, and public awareness campaigns.

Exposure to endocrine-disrupting compounds such as phthalates and bisphenol A is associated with an increased risk for obesity

Increasing evidence from epidemiological, animal and in vitro studies suggests that the increased production of synthetic chemicals that interfere with the proper functioning of the hormonal system, so-called endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs), might be involved in the development and rapid spread of obesity, coined the obesity epidemic. Recent findings have demonstrated that EDCs may interfere with hormonal receptors that regulate adipogenesis and metabolic pathways. Furthermore, prenatal exposure to EDCs has been shown to influence the metabolism of the developing embryo through epigenetic mechanisms and to promote obesity in subsequent generations. In this Review, we discuss the potential impact of bisphenol A (BPA) and phthalate-based plasticizers on obesity and obesity-related metabolic disorders. Special emphasis is given to the obesogenic effects of prenatal exposure and strategies for identifying, regulating, and replacing EDCs.

Study on bisphenol F, a bisphenol A analogue, at a dairy company: Health hazard and risk assessment

The occurrence of analogues of bisphenol A (BPA), including bisphenol F(BPF) in milk is still not well known. BPF may enter the milk chain at the farm and during milk processing at the dairy company. This study identified the main BPF contamination pathways using a monitoring model based on the identification of the hazard at three stages along the dairy chain: raw milk from the storage tank, pasteurized milk from the storage tank, and cardboard packaged milk. Quantitative analysis was performed by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorometric detection (HPLC/FD) system. BPF was detected in all analysed stages (from <LOQ to 2.686 μg/L). The structural and toxicological similarity between BPF and BPA suggested considering both bisphenols for a more comprehensive risk evaluation. The daily intake of BPF and of the sum of BPF and BPA, and the worst-case scenario through the consumption of packaged milk were calculated. Exposure levels below the temporary daily intake, fixed for only BPA, were detected in all consumer age classes. Nevertheless, the use of BPA substitutes represents a risk to human health because of their potential synergic effects. The application of a monitoring program at each stage of milk processing at the dairy company may represent a useful strategy to ensure food safety in the milk chain.

Identification of synergistic and antagonistic actions of environmental pollutants: Bisphenols A, S and F in the presence of DEP, DBP, BADGE and BADGE·2HCl in three component mixtures

Ecosystems are facing increased pressure due to the emission of many classes of emerging contaminants. However, very little is known about the interactions of these pollutants, such as bisphenols (BPs), plasticizers or pharmaceuticals. By employing bioluminescent bacteria (Microtox assay), we were able to define interactions between selected emerging pollutants (namely BPA, BPS, BPF, BADGE, BADGE·2HCl, DEP, DBP) in ternary mixtures, at environmentally relevant concentration levels (down to as low as 1.89, 1.42, 3.08, and 0.326 μM for, respectively, BPA, BPF, BPS and BADGE·2HCl). We provide the first systematic analysis of bisphenols and phthalates in three component mixtures. Using this system, we performed toxicity modelling with concentration addition (CA) and independent action (IA) approaches, followed by data interpretation using Model Deviation Ratio (MDR) evaluation. Interestingly, we mathematically and experimentally confirmed a novel synergy between BPA, BADGE and BADGE·2HCl. The synergy of BPA, BADGE and BADGE·2HCl is distinct, with both models suggesting these analytes have a similar mode of action (MOA). Moreover, we unexpectedly found a strong antagonistic impact with DEP, in mixtures containing BPA and BADGE analogues, which is confirmed with both mathematical models. Our study also shows that the impact of BPS and BPF in many mixtures is highly concentration dependent, justifying the necessity to perform mixture studies using wide concentration ranges. Overall, this study demonstrates that bioluminescent bacteria are a relevant model for detecting the synergistic and antagonist actions of environmental pollutants in mixtures, and highlights the importance of analyzing combinations of pollutants in higher order mixtures.

Human biomonitoring of bisphenol A along pregnancy: An exposure reconstruction of the EXHES-Spain cohort

This study was aimed at reconstructing the exposure to bisphenol (BPA) of 60 pregnant women from the EXHES-Spain cohort. A biomonitoring study was conducted by determining BPA levels in urine samples over the three trimesters of pregnancy. Moreover, the correlations between BPA levels and the role of different potential exposure sources, with special emphasis on the dietary intake, were also studied. Urine samples were subjected to dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction and the subsequent analysis via gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. BPA was detected in 76% of the urine samples. A significant decrease of urinary BPA levels was observed along pregnancy, as mean concentrations of creatinine-adjusted BPA were 4.64, 4.84 and 2.51 μg/g in the first, second and third trimester, respectively. This decrease was essentially associated with changes in the dietary habits of the pregnant women, including a lower intake of canned food and drinks. However, the potential role of other pregnancy-related biochemical or physiological factors should not be disregarded. Very interestingly, significant differences in urine BPA levels were found according to the fruit consumption pattern, as women who ate more citrus fruits showed lower BPA concentrations in urine. The reconstructed exposure to BPA was estimated in 0.072, 0.069 and 0.038 μg BPA/kg of body weight/day in the first, second and third trimesters, respectively. These values are far below the temporary tolerable daily intake (t-TDI) established by the EFSA.

Bisphenol A, bisphenol S and their glucuronidated metabolites modulate glycolysis and functional responses of human neutrophils

Bisphenol A (BPA) and its main substitute, bisphenol S (BPS), are synthetic organic compounds found in various consumer products, in particular food and beverage containers. Numerous reports have shown a link between bisphenol exposure, human contamination and increased health problems. BPA, BPS and their metabolites are detectable in bodily fluids (blood, urine) and were reported to affect immune cells and their responses. Though, the impact of those chemicals on neutrophils, the most abundant leukocytes in the circulation, remains poorly described. Therefore, we examined the effects of BPA, BPS and their monoglucuronide conjugates on neutrophil energy metabolism and anti-microbial functions, mainly phagocytosis, superoxide anion generation and CXCL8/IL-8 chemokine production. We observed that short and prolonged exposures of neutrophils to these chemicals modulate the basal and the bacterium-derived peptide N-formyl-methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine-induced glycolysis, with BPS causing the most alterations. The variation in energy metabolism was not associated with dysfunctions in cell cytotoxicity, phagocytosis, nor superoxide anion production upon exposure to bisphenols. In contrast, bisphenols significantly reduced the production of CXCL8/IL-8 by neutrophils, an effect found to be greater with the glucuronidated metabolites. Our study highlights that BPA, BPS and their glucuronidated metabolites alter the energy metabolism and certain anti-microbial responses of neutrophils, with possible health implications. Importantly, we found that BPS and the glucuronidated metabolites of BPA and BPS showed higher endocrine-disrupting potential than BPA. More studies on bisphenols, especially the less-documented BPS and bisphenol metabolites, are needed to fully determine their risks, allow better regulation of these compounds, and restrict their extensive usage.

Bisphenol F and bisphenol S promote lipid accumulation and adipogenesis in human adipose-derived stem cells

Bisphenol F (BPF) and bisphenol S (BPS) are increasingly used as substitutes for bisphenol A (BPA), an endocrine disrupting chemical (EDC) with obesogenic activity. We investigated the in vitro effects of BPS and BPF on the adipogenesis of human adipose-derived stem cells (hASCs) exposed to different doses (0.01, 0.1, 1, 10 and 25 μM), stopping the adipogenic process at 7 or 14 days. Intracellular lipid accumulation was quantified by the Oil Red O assay, gene expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ), CCAT/enhancer-binding protein (C/EBPα), lipoprotein-lipase (LPL) and fatty acid binding protein 4 (FABP4), by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and protein levels by Western Blot. hASCs with BPF or BPS produced a linear dose-response increase in intracellular lipid accumulation and in gene expression of the adipogenic markers, confirmed by protein levels. Co-treatment ICI 182,780 significantly inhibited BPF- but not BPS-induced lipid accumulation. Given the affinity of bisphenols for diverse nuclear receptors, their obesogenic effects may result from a combination of pathways rather than a single mechanism. Further research is warranted on the manner in which chemicals interfere with adipogenic differentiation. To our best knowledge, this report shows for the first time the obesogenic potential of BPF in hASCs.