Consumption of raw or heated milk from different species: An evaluation of the nutritional and potential health benefits

Unlocking the potential of donkey Milk: Nutritional composition, bioactive properties and future prospects

Donkey milk has garnered increasing attention due to its remarkable similarity to human milk and its diverse bioactive properties. Analysis of its composition shows that donkey milk is characterized by high lactose content, low protein, low fat, a balanced calcium-to‑phosphorus ratio, and abundant in vitamins C and D, making it a promising human milk alternative. Additionally, donkey milk contains a unique composition of whey proteins and polyunsaturated fatty acids, contributing to its beneficial health effects such as antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and hypoallergenic properties. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the nutritional profile of donkey milk in comparison to other mammalian milk sources. Furthermore, it highlights its bioactive potential and discusses the current challenges and future opportunities for expanding its applications in the dairy and health industries. Despite its valuable properties, the development of donkey milk products remains limited due to low milk yield and high production costs. Further research and technological advancements are necessary to optimize its utilization and commercial potential.

Unveiling the N-Glycomic Diversity of Goat Lactoferrin during Lactation

Goat lactoferrin is an N-glycoprotein, and its glycan moieties are essential for its biological activity. However, the structures of these glycans, particularly the sialylated isomers with α-2,3- or α-2,6-linkages, remain poorly characterized. Utilizing online hydrophilic liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, our study characterized N-glycans in goat lactoferrin across different lactation stages, and the putative structures of the 86 N-glycans of goat lactoferrin were presented, including 53 previously undetected ones. The content and variety of N-glycans decreased from colostrum to mature milk, with transitional milk exhibiting the highest levels of neutral and high-mannose N-glycans. Colostrum was particularly rich in fucose- and sialylated N-glycans, especially those with α-2,6-linkages. Notably, the α-2,6-linked sialylated N-glycan H5N4F1A1-1 was 7.09-fold and 12.85-fold more abundant in colostrum compared to transitional and mature milk, respectively. These findings provide valuable insights into the structure of lactoferrin and could facilitate the development of functional goat milk products.

Application of Omics in Donkey Meat Research: A Review

This review comprehensively examines the molecular basis of donkey meat characteristics and growth-associated genes, integrating findings from multiple omics approaches. This study examines the nutritional profile of donkey meat, which is rich in protein, essential amino acids, and unsaturated fatty acids. Through a systematic literature search across Web of Science, Google Scholar, PubMed, and Scopus databases (2000-2024), we collected and analyzed data from 400 research articles using predefined inclusion criteria focused on nutritional composition, omics approaches, and meat quality parameters in donkey populations. The study also evaluates various factors affecting meat quality, including breed differences, age, feeding management, and storage conditions. Advanced genomic and transcriptomic analyses have revealed numerous candidate genes, such as ACTN3, BMP7, NR6A1, Wnt7a, HOXC8, LCORL, TPM2, and TPM3, associated with growth traits and meat quality characteristics, providing valuable insights for genetic improvement programs. Furthermore, the review discusses various authentication methods for ensuring donkey meat quality and preventing adulteration, highlighting the integration of traditional and modern analytical approaches.

Characterization of diet-linked amino acid pool influence on Fusobacterium spp. growth and metabolism

The genus Fusobacterium contains multiple proteolytic opportunistic pathogens that have been increasingly linked to colorectal cancer (CRC). "Oncomicrobes" such as these fusobacterial species within the gut microbiota may contribute to CRC onset and/or progression. Protein-rich diets may both directly increase CRC risk and enrich for proteolytic oncomicrobes, including Fusobacterium spp. Individual food substrates vary in amino acid content, and released amino acid content that is not absorbed in the small intestine may influence the growth of colonic proteolytic fermenters. Fusobacteria such as Fusobacterium spp. are known to preferentially metabolize certain amino acids. As such, some foods may better support the growth of these species within the colonic environment than others. To explore this, in this study, we created free amino acid pools (FAAPs) to represent proportions of amino acids in major proteins of three common dietary protein sources (soy, beef, and bovine milk). Growth curves were generated for 39 Fusobacterium spp. strains cultured in a dilute medium supplemented with each of the three FAAPs. Thereafter, amino acid use by 31 of the 39 Fusobacterium spp. strains in each FAAP treatment was assessed. FAAP supplementation increased growth metrics of all Fusobacterium spp. strains tested; however, the strains varied greatly in terms of the FAAP(s) generating the greatest increase in growth. Furthermore, the amino acid utilization strategy was highly variable between strains of Fusobacterium spp. Neither growth metrics nor amino acid utilization could be explained by species classification of Fusobacterium spp. strains. This report expands upon the previous knowledge of fusobacterial amino acid metabolism and indicates that proteolytic oncomicrobial activity should be assessed in the context of available protein sources.IMPORTANCEFusobacterium spp. including F. animalis, F. nucleatum, F. vincentii, and F. polymorphum are common oral commensals with emerging importance in diseases across multiple body sites, including CRC. CRC lesions associated with fusobacteria tend to result in poorer prognosis and increased disease recurrence. While Fusobacterium spp. are thought to colonize after tumorigenesis, little is known about the factors that facilitate this colonization. Protein-rich diets yielding readily metabolized free amino acids within the colon may promote the growth of proteolytic fermenters such as fusobacteria. Here, we show that variable concentrations of free amino acids within pools that represent different dietary protein sources differentially influence fusobacterial growth, including CRC-relevant strains of Fusobacterium spp. This work highlights the high degree of variation in fusobacterial amino acid utilization patterns and suggests differing proportions of dietary amino acids that reach the colon could influence fusobacterial growth.

Seasonal Variation in Essential Minerals, Trace Elements, and Potentially Toxic Elements in Donkey Milk from Banat and Balkan Breeds in the Zasavica Nature Reserve

Donkey milk is highly valued for its unique nutritional characteristics and hypoallergenic properties. However, limited data exist on its mineral composition and potential contaminants. This study aimed to comprehensively analyze the concentration of selected essential and toxic elements from Banat and Balkan donkey breeds reared under extensive organic conditions (free-range) across different seasons. The focus was on determining the concentrations of essential minerals and trace elements (Ca, P, Na, K, Mg, Zn, Cu, Se), and potentially toxic elements (As, Pb, Hg, Cd). Samples were collected monthly over one year, with nine pooled samples per season. Mineral elements were determined using a validated ICP-MS method. The mineral content ranges (mg/kg) were Ca (588.9-744.4), P (355.6-533.3), Mg (71.1-84.4), K (444.4-711.1), Na (355.6-444.4), with trace elements (mg/kg) including Zn (2.06-2.21), Cu (0.31-0.68), and Se (0.02-0.05). Potentially toxic elements were within safe limits, with the exception that Pb levels exceeded permissible limits in two samples. Statistically significant seasonal variations were observed for Ca, P, K, As, and Cu. Donkey milk from both breeds was rich in minerals and low in contaminants. This research highlights the need for further studies on the nutritional and safety aspects of donkey milk.

Proteomics and surface free fatty acid analysis of milk fat globules in spray- and freeze-dried bovine, goat, and horse milk powders

Changes in the structure and composition of milk fat globules in spray- and freeze-dried milk powders have recently garnered notable attention. This study investigated changes in milk fat globular membrane (MFGM) proteins from bovine, goat, and horse milk powders, both spray- and freeze-dried, using a label-free proteomic approach, and quantified surface free fatty acids and their composition using GC. The results showed that several proteins, including αS2-CN and β-LG, increased, whereas fibrinogen α and β chain and mucin-1 decreased in the MFGM fractions of the studied spray-dried milk powders. Additionally, lactoperoxidase and polymeric immunoglobulin receptor levels were elevated in the studied freeze-dried milk powders. Several proteins exhibited variations in both dried milk powders depending on the species; of these, nucleobindin-1, complement C3, and sulfhydryl oxidase were increased in spray-dried bovine and goat milk powders, and lactoferrin was increased in freeze-dried horse milk powder, compared with their raw milk counterparts. Conversely, butyrophilin subfamily 1 member A1 and xanthine dehydrogenase/oxidase were decreased in spray-dried bovine and goat milk powders, S100 calcium-binding protein and aldehyde dehydrogenase were decreased in freeze-dried bovine and goat milk powders, and mucin-4 and paraoxonase were decreased in horse milk powder. Additionally, spray-dried milk powders had lower surface free fatty acid contents than freeze-dried milk powders. The findings underscore that drying methods exert varied effects on MFGM components of the studied milk sources, thereby providing a valuable reference for improving the nutritional quality of dried dairy products.

Can lab-grown milk be a novel trend in the dairy industry?

Milk using the traditional production system has been associated with environmental problems such as gas emissions and climate change, drawing the attention of industry and researchers to the search for alternatives that may be more sustainable for milk production. Cellular agriculture is an emerging process proposed for food production without animal involvement. Although milk production through cellular agriculture is in the initial phase and presents many technical challenges, its production is promising and has attracted key players in the dairy sector. This review highlighted two types of lab-grown milk production: production using mammary cells and precision fermentation using specific microbial hosts. There are still few scientific articles that address milk production through cellular agriculture. Studies have focused on obtaining milk proteins that can be combined with other constituents, such as water, oils, and carbohydrates, to create products that simulate milk's nutritional and functional properties. Patent applications from dairy industries and startups describing methods for obtaining lab-grown milk include genetic manipulation, selection of microorganisms, culture medium for growth of microorganisms or mammary cells, growth factors, and engineering of bioreactors used in milk production and/or constituents. Challenges related to optimal nutritional profile, costs and regulatory issues must be addressed in the coming years. Therefore, this review article provides relevant information and discussion about lab-grown milk, which, despite being promising, is still in the early stages.

Does Transglutaminase Crosslinking Reduce the Antibody Recognition Capacity of β-Lactoglobulin: An Analysis from Conformational Perspective

Food allergies are a global concern, with β-lactoglobulin (β-LG) in bovine milk being a major allergenic protein. This study investigated the effects of transglutaminase (TGase)-mediated crosslinking on the antibody recognition capacity (ARC) and structural properties of β-LG, with the aim of developing hypoallergenic dairy products. β-LG solutions were treated with TGase at varying concentrations (0, 5, 10, 15, and 20 U/g) and durations (0, 6, 18, 24, and 42 h), followed by analysis using electrophoresis, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and spectroscopy. The results demonstrated that treatment with TGase at 20 U/g significantly reduced the ARC and immunoglobulin E (IgE) binding capacity of β-LG to 90.0 ± 0.4% and 58.4 ± 1.0%, respectively, with the optimal ARC reduction observed after 6 h of treatment (86.7 ± 1.2%, p < 0.05). Although electrophoresis did not reveal significant crosslinking of β-LG, ultraviolet absorption, fluorescence intensity, and hydrophobicity all increased with prolonged crosslinking time, while sulfhydryl content fluctuated irregularly. These findings suggest that β-LG underwent varying degrees of structural modification, which led to the masking of antigenic epitopes during the early stages (0-24 h), followed by their re-exposure at the later stage (42 h). Overall, these results highlight the potential of TGase to reduce β-LG potential allergenicity, presenting a promising strategy for the development of hypoallergenic dairy products.

Characterization and monitoring of changes during lactation in the profile of multiple bioactive compounds of milk from grazing mares

BACKGROUND

Mare milk has often been considered a food product with potential functional properties. However, the bioactive compound composition of mare milk, including vitamins and other minor bioactive compounds, as well as factors affecting this composition have scarcely been studied. Therefore, the present study aimed to characterize the changes during lactation in the content of water- and fat-soluble vitamins and total polyphenols, and the total antioxidant capacity of mare milk from semi-extensive farms. A total of 310 individual milk samples from 18 mares belonging to three commercial farms and 12 lactation times were analyzed. Ascorbic acid (vitamin C), thiamine (vitamin B1), riboflavin (vitamin B2), nicotinic acid and niacinamide (vitamins B3), pantothenic acid (vitamin B5), pyridoxal and pyridoxine (vitamins B6), folic acid (vitamin B9), cyanocobalamin (vitamin B12), tocopherols and tocotrienols (vitamin E) and retinol and retinyl esters (vitamin A) were quantified using liquid chromatography. Total polyphenols and antioxidant capacity assays were analyzed using spectrophotometry.

RESULTS

The concentration of most bioactive compounds tended to decline as lactation progressed, with the exception of polyphenols and the total antioxidant capacity that oscillated during lactation. On the other hand, the effect of the different semi-extensive management of the farms was only significant for vitamin B3 content.

CONCLUSION

To the best of our knowledge, the present study provides the most in-depth description of the vitamin profile of mare milk as well as new insights into polyphenol content and antioxidant capacity of mare milk. © 2024 The Author(s). Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Heat Treatment of Bovine Milk Influences Gastric Emptying of Lactose but not its Apparent Small Intestinal Disappearance in the Growing Pig as a Model for the Adult Human

BACKGROUND

Heat treatment influences gastric emptying of proteins and lipids in bovine milk. Whether heat treatment influences lactose gastric emptying and small intestinal lactose disappearance remains unknown.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to determine the gastric emptying of lactose and its disappearance from the small intestine of the growing pig as a model for the adult human.

METHODS

After 10 d of adaptation, fasted 9-wk-old pigs (n = 48) consumed 500 mL of pasteurized or ultra-high-temperature (UHT) bovine milk before being killed at 20, 60, 120, or 180 min post-feeding. Gastric, small, and large intestinal contents were collected to determine the gastric emptying of lactose, its apparent small intestinal disappearance, and its release into the large intestine. Portal vein blood samples were also collected to measure galactose concentration over time. Data were analyzed using nonlinear and polynomial models.

RESULTS

The gastric emptying of lactose was faster for pigs fed pasteurized milk than those fed UHT milk (P ≤ 0.05). For example, 14 ± 2.9% and 24 ± 2.2% (mean ± standard error) of lactose, respectively, were retained in the stomach at 60 min post-feeding. The apparent small intestinal disappearance of lactose increased to 88 ± 2.4% over time, but it did not differ between milk types. Similarly, the plasma galactose concentration in the portal vein increased during the first post-feeding hour but did not differ between milk types. Lactose reached the large intestine during the first 20 min post-feeding, and the amount of lactose released into the large intestine did not change over time (523 μmol on average across post-feeding times after back transformation of 6.26 ± 0.37) or between milk types.

CONCLUSIONS

Heat treatment influenced the gastric emptying of lactose but did not impact subsequent small intestinal apparent disappearance and portal blood plasma galactose appearance.

Effect of Bovine Colostrum on Canine Immune Health

Colostrum, the first fluid secreted by the mammary glands of mammalian mothers, contains essential nutrients for the health and survival of newborns. Bovine colostrum (BC) is notable for its high concentrations of bioactive components, such as immunoglobulins and lactoferrin. Despite dogs being the world's most popular companion animals, there is limited research on their immune systems compared to humans. This summary aims to consolidate published studies that explore the immune benefits of BC, focusing specifically on its implications for dogs.

Influence of Plant Additives on Changes in the Composition of Fatty Acids, Lipid Quality Indices and Minerals of Fermented Dairy Products from Cow's Milk

The aim of this study was to assess the effect of selected plant additives on changes in the content of fatty acids, lipid quality indicators and mineral composition of yogurts produced from cow's milk. The analysis included natural yogurts and yogurts enriched with 10% of chia seeds, hulled hemp seeds, quinoa seeds and oat bran. The fatty acid composition, the content of lipid quality indicators and the content of mineral components was varied in all analyzed yogurts. The plant additives used caused significant (p ≤ 0.05) changes in their fatty acid content, i.e., a significant decrease in the content of saturated fatty acids (SFAs) and short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), and a significant increase in the content of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). The plant additives used caused significant (p ≤ 0.05) changes in the content of fatty acids, i.e., a significant decrease in the content of saturated fatty acids (SFAs) and short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), and a significant increase in the content of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). It was shown that additives such as chia seeds and peeled hemp seeds caused the greatest changes in the analyzed yogurts. Yogurts with these additives were characterized by a significant increase in the content of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), including n-3 acids, and a more favorable n-6/n-3 ratio. Yogurts with these additives were also characterized by significantly (p ≤ 0.05) lower atherogenic (AI) and thrombogenic (TI) indices and a higher hypocholesterolemia-to-hypercholesterolemia ratio (H/H). The addition of peeled hemp seeds caused the greatest changes in the content of minerals. Yogurts with hemp seeds were characterized by the highest content of all measured macroelements, as well as copper, iron and zinc. In turn, the highest manganese content was determined in the yogurts with the addition of chia seeds.

Study Protocol for a Randomized Controlled Trial Investigating the Effects of the Daily Consumption of Ruminant Milk on Digestive Comfort and Nutrition in Older Women: The YUMMI Study

BACKGROUND

Age-related changes can lead to dietary insufficiency in older adults. The inclusion of high-quality, nutrient-dense foods such as ruminant milks can significantly improve health outcomes. However, many older adults worldwide do not meet daily milk intake recommendations because of digestive discomfort and health concerns. Ovine and caprine milks are increasingly popular for their perceived digestive and nutritional benefits. While preclinical studies suggest differences in milk digestion, human studies investigating acute postprandial responses remain inconclusive, and the impacts of sustained milk consumption remain uncertain.

OBJECTIVES

Hence, we present a randomized controlled trial investigating how the sustained consumption of bovine, caprine, or ovine milk influences digestion, nutrition, and metabolism in older women.

METHODS

A total of 165 healthy older women were randomized to receive bovine, caprine, or ovine milk, or no milk, twice daily for 12 weeks. The primary outcome is the impact of milk consumption on digestive comfort assessed via the Gastrointestinal Syndrome Rating Scale (GSRS). Secondary outcomes include changes in nutrient intake, plasma amino acid and lipid appearance, bowel habits, the gut microbiota, cardiometabolic health, physical function, physical activity, sleep, mood, sensory perception, and emotional response.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings could inform dietary recommendations for older women and facilitate the development of targeted functional food products.

Novel Insight into the Composition Differences Between Buffalo and Holstein Milk and Potential Anti-Inflammation and Antioxidant Effect on Caco-2 Cells

Milk is one of the most common sources of nutrients in humans, however, the composition and healthy value of the milk derived from different animals are very different. Here, we systemically compared the protein and lipid profiles and evaluated the anti-inflammation and antioxidant effect of buffalo and Holstein-derived milk on Caco-2 cells. Results showed that 906 proteins and 1899 lipids were identified in the buffalo milk and Holstein milk samples including 161 significantly different proteins (DEPs) and 49 significantly different lipids. The DEPs were mainly enriched in defense response-related terms, while the differential lipids were mainly included in fat digestion and absorption and cholesterol metabolism pathways. In addition, the Caco-2 cells co-cultured with buffalo and Holstein milk components showed significant benefits in being resistant to LPS-induced inflammation stress and H2O2-induced ROS stress. The qRT-PCR and ELISA results showed that the expression of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 was significantly lower (p < 0.05) in the cells co-cultured with milk components. Further analysis showed that, after H2O2 treatment, the expression of keap1 and Nrf-2 in the Caco-2 cells co-cultured with milk components was significantly lower (p < 0.05). In addition, being co-cultured with milk components significantly decreased the SOD, MDA, CAT, and GSH-Px content (p < 0.05) in the Caco-2 cells induced by H2O2. This study provides a novel insight into the differences in proteins and lipids between buffalo milk and Holstein milk, and a reference understanding of the anti-inflammation and antioxidant effect of the consumption of milk on the intestines.

Site-Specific N-Glycoprofiling of Immunoglobulin G Subtypes from Donkey Milk

Donkey milk IgG was probed for the site-specific N-glycosylation pattern through RP-UHPLC-MS/MS. The affinity-purified milk IgG was subjected to SDS-PAGE and proteomic analysis, which revealed the presence of subtypes. Multiple N-glycopeptides arising from the predicted donkey IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, IgG5, IgG6, and IgG7 subtypes' heavy-chain constant region were shown to contain glycans at the highly conserved glycosylation site NST in the CH2 domain. Differences in the peptide backbone with the NST site among subtypes generated after trypsin digestion resulted in the evaluation of the subtype-specific glycan pattern. Glycan sequence analysis indicated predominantly biantennary complex types with core fucosylation at the site NST. Interestingly, an additional site NQT in the CH1 domain of the heavy-chain constant region of IgG5 was found to possess mainly sialylated biantennary complex glycans with NeuAc and NeuGc. Structural diversity of glycans was mainly observed in the predicted donkey IgG1, IgG5, and IgG7, whereas IgG2, IgG3, and IgG6 resulted in the glycopeptides that are of low abundance in the analyzed samples. These findings would pave the way for a better understanding of donkey milk functional properties.

The casein in sheep milk processed by cold plasma technology: Phosphorylation degree, functional properties, oxidation characteristics, and structure

Cold plasma is a nonthermal process used for modification of proteins. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of cold plasma technology on the phosphorylation degree, functional and oxidation properties, and structure of casein in sheep milk. Cold plasma treatment for 3-4 min significantly increased the phosphorylation degree and enhanced functional properties, including water-holding capacity, solubility, foaming capacity and stability. Besides, plasma treatment time profoundly influenced protein oxidation, and treatment for 2 and 3 min could be the preferred conditions to minimize protein change. The protein conformation became unstable with the extension of treatment time. Particle size, polymer dispersity index, and microscopy images confirmed alterations in the protein structure following 3 min of processing. Consequently, using cold plasma treatment at 10 kHz 20 kV for 3 min could be suggested for milk protein modification, providing a basis for the application of high-quality caseins in food processing.

Detailed mineral profile of milk, whey, and cheese from cows, buffaloes, goats, ewes, and dromedary camels, and efficiency of recovery of minerals in their cheese

Milk and dairy products are important in the human diet not only for the macronutrients, such as proteins and fats, that they provide, but also for the supply of essential micronutrients, such as minerals. Minerals are present in milk in soluble form in the aqueous phase and in colloidal form associated with the macronutrients of the milk. These 2 forms affect the nutritional functions of the minerals and their contribution to the technological properties of milk during cheese making. The aim of the present work was to study and compare the detailed mineral profiles of dairy foods (milk, whey, and cheese) obtained from cows, buffaloes, goats, ewes and dromedary camels, and to analyze the recovery in the curd of the individual minerals according to a model cheese-making procedure applied to the milk of these 5 dairy species. The detailed mineral profile of the milk samples was obtained by inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy. We divided the 21 minerals identified in the 3 different matrices into essential macro- and microminerals, and environmental microminerals, and calculated the recovery of the individual minerals in the cheeses. The complete mineral profiles and the recoveries in the cheeses were then analyzed using a linear mixed model with Species, Food, and their interaction included as fixed effects, and Sample within Species as a random effect. The mineral profiles of each food matrix were then analyzed separately with a general linear model in which only the fixed effect of Species was included. The results showed that the species could be divided into 2 groups: those producing a more diluted milk characterized by a higher content of soluble minerals (in particular, K), and those with a more concentrated milk with a higher colloidal mineral content in the skim of the milk (such as Ca and P). The recoveries of the minerals in the curd were in line with the initial content in the milk, and also highlighted the fact that the influence of the brine was not limited to the Na content but to its whole mineral makeup. These results provide valuable information for the evaluation of the nutritional and technological properties of milk, and for the uses made of the byproducts of cheese making from the milk of different species.

The influence of surface properties on the cooperative behavior of powdered milks

This study comprehensively analyses various powdered milk samples to elucidate their structural, surface, and mechanical properties. Through detailed examination, diverse characteristics among the samples were observed, shedding light on their behavior under different conditions. Notably, findings reveal intriguing insights into surface energy profiles, Harkins spreading coefficient, powder rheological properties, and sound absorption efficiency of the powdered milk samples. The intricate relationship between surface properties and bulk characteristics influenced the cooperative behavior of freely poured and consolidated milk powder beds, resulting in varying flowability from free-flowing to cohesive. Surface energy played a significant role in cohesiveness and dispersibility, with milk fat acting as a key mediator leading to changes in bulk dynamic-mechanical stiffness. These findings hold practical implications for formulating innovative aerosol-based dairy and cosmetic products, thereby enhancing everyday experiences.

Is there sufficient evidence to support the health benefits of including donkey milk in the diet?

Donkey milk has attracted attention due to its distinctive nutritional composition and potential health advantages, particularly because of its whey protein content, which includes lysozyme, α-lactalbumin, lactoferrin, and β-lactoglobulin and vitamin C, among other components. These elements contribute to immunoregulatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties, positioning donkey milk as a possible therapeutic option. In addition, due to the low levels of caseins, the casein-to-whey protein ratio, and the β-lactoglobulin content in donkey milk, it presents an optimal alternative for infant formula for individuals with cow's milk allergies. Moreover, research into donkey milk's potential for cancer prevention, diabetes management, and as a treatment for various diseases is ongoing, thanks to its bioactive peptides and components. Nevertheless, challenges such as its low production yield and the not fully understood mechanisms behind its potential therapeutic role necessitate more thorough investigation. This review consolidates the existing knowledge on the therapeutic possibilities of donkey milk, emphasizing its importance for human health and the need for more detailed studies to confirm its health benefits.

Nutritional composition, fatty acids profile and immunoglobulin G concentrations of mare milk of the Chilean Corralero horse breed

The objective of the present study was to characterize the nutritional composition, fatty acid profile, and IgG concentration of the milk produced by Chilean Corralero horse (CCH) mares from breeding farms located in southern Chile. Forty-five milk samples were collected from three of the biggest breeding farms (coded as A, B and C) specialized in breeding and selection of CCH in Chile (15 mares sampled per farm). Farms differed in days in milk (DIM). A negative association between DIM and ash, milk protein, milk solids, saturated fatty acids (SFA), and gross energy (GE) was found, whereas DIM had a positive association with monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA). Milk components like fat, lactose, and energy content varied independently of DIM, indicating other influencing factors such as farm-specific management practices. Offspring sex moderately affected GE content, with milk from mares bearing female offspring having higher GE. Macronutrient profiles of the CCH mares' milk were within the reported range for other horse breeds but tended to have lower fat and total solids. Compared to cow and human milk, horse milk is richer in lactose and lower in fat and protein. Immunoglobulin G concentration was only affected by the farm (B > A) which could be linked to dietary factors and pasture composition rather than maternal parity or other known factors. Overall, CCH mare milk has notable nutritional characteristics, with implications for both foal health and potential human consumption, posing less cardiac risk compared to cow's milk as indicated by lower atherogenic and thrombogenic indices.

Effect of electron beam irradiation on raw goat milk: microbiological, physicochemical and protein structural analysis

BACKGROUND

Goat milk is considered a nutritionally superior resource, owing to its advantageous nutritional attributes. Nevertheless, it is susceptible to spoilage and the persistence of pathogens. Electron beam irradiation stands as a promising non-thermal processing technique capable of prolonging shelf life with minimal residue and a high degree of automation.

RESULTS

The effects of electron beam irradiation (2, 3, 5, and 7 kGy) on microorganisms, physicochemical properties, and protein structure of goat milk compared with conventional pasteurized goat milk (PGM) was evaluated. It was found that a 2 kGy electron beam irradiation reduces the total microbial count of goat milk by 6-logs, and the irradiated goat milk protein secondary structure showed a significant decrease in ɑ-helix content. Low irradiation doses led to microaggregation and crosslinking. In contrast, high doses (≥ 5 kGy) slightly disrupted the aggregates and decreased the particle size, disrupting the microscopic surface structure of goat milk, verified by scanning electron microscopy and confocal laser scanning microscopy.

CONCLUSION

The irradiation of goat milk with a 2 kGy electron beam may effectively inactivate harmful microorganisms in the milk and maintain/or improve the physicochemical quality and protein structure of goat milk compared to thermal pasteurization. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

A metabolomics analysis of interspecies and seasonal trends in ruminant milk: The molecular difference between bovine, caprine, and ovine milk

Ruminant milk composition can be affected by many factors, primarily interspecies differences, but also environmental factors (e.g., season, feeding system, and feed composition). Pasture-based feeding systems are known to be influenced by seasonal effects on grass composition. Spring pasture is rich in protein and low in fiber compared with late-season pasture, potentially inducing variability in the composition of some milk metabolites across the season. This study aimed to investigate interspecies and seasonal differences in the milk metabolome across the 3 major commercial ruminant milk species from factories in New Zealand: bovine, caprine, and ovine milk. Samples of bovine (n = 41) and caprine (n = 44) raw milk were collected monthly for a period of 9 mo (August 2016-April 2017), and ovine milk samples (n = 20) were collected for a period of 5 mo (August 2016-January 2017). Milk samples were subjected to biphasic extraction, and untargeted metabolite profiling was performed using 2 separate liquid chromatography high-resolution mass spectrometry analytical methods (polar metabolites and lipids). Major differences in the milk metabolome were observed between the 3 ruminant species, with 414 of 587 (71%) polar metabolite features and 210 of 233 (87%) lipid features being significantly different between species. Significant seasonal trends were observed in the polar metabolite fraction for bovine, caprine, and ovine milk (17, 24, and 32 metabolites, respectively), suggesting that the polar metabolite relative intensities of ovine and caprine milk were more susceptible to changes within seasons than bovine milk. We found no significant seasonal difference for the triglycerides (TG) species measured in bovine milk, whereas 3 and 52 TG species changed in caprine and ovine milk, respectively, across the seasons. In addition, 4 phosphatidylcholines and 2 phosphatidylethanolamines varied in caprine milk within the season, and 8 diglycerides varied in ovine milk. The interspecies and seasonal metabolite differences reported here provide a knowledge base of components potentially linked to milk physiochemical properties, and potential health benefits of New Zealand pasture-fed dairy ingredients.

Functional Peptides from Yak Milk Casein: Biological Activities and Structural Characteristics

The average content of casein in yak milk is 40.2 g/L. Casein can be degraded by enzymatic digestion or food processing to produce abundant degradation peptides. International researchers have studied the degradation peptides of yak milk casein by using multiple techniques and methods, such as in vitro activity tests, cellular experiments, proteomics, bioinformatics, etc., and found that the degradation peptides have a wide range of functional activities that are beneficial to the human body, such as angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, antimicrobial, anticancer, and immunomodulatory activities, etc., and it has been proved that the types and strengths of functional activities are closely related to the structural characteristics of the peptides. This paper describes the characteristics of yak milk proteins, the functional activities, and mechanism of action of degraded peptides. Based on the types of functional activities of yak milk casein degradation peptides, we classified and elucidated the effects of structural factors, such as peptide molecular weight, peptide length, amino acid sequence, physicochemical properties, electrical charge, hydrophobicity, spatial conformation, chain length, and the type of enzyme on these activities. It reveals the great potential of yak milk casein degradation peptides as functional active peptide resources and as auxiliary treatments for diseases. It also provides important insights for analyzing yak casein degradation peptide activity and exploring high-value utilization.

Effect of Dietary Energy Level during Late Gestation on Mineral Contents in Colostrum, Milk, and Plasma of Lactating Jennies

This study investigated the effects of dietary energy levels during late gestation on mineral content in the plasma, colostrum, and milk of jennies postpartum. Twenty-four pregnant multiparous DeZhou jennies, aged 6.0  ±  0.1 years, with a body weight of 292  ±  33 kg, an average parity number of 2.7  ±  0.1, and similar expected dates of confinement (74  ±  4 days), were randomly allocated to three groups and fed three diets: high energy (12.54 MJ/kg, HE), medium energy (12.03 MJ/kg, ME), and low energy (11.39 MJ/kg, LE). Blood samples were collected from the jugular vein of each jenny at time points of 0 h, 24 h, 48 h, 5 d, 7 d, and 14 d after parturition. Additionally, milk samples were collected through manual milking, and an analysis of the mineral content was conducted. The results showed that compared with HE, both ME and LE significantly increased the levels of calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), zinc (Zn), selenium (Se), molybdenum (Mo), and cobalt (Co) in the plasma and Ca, P, magnesium (Mg), copper (Cu), manganese (Mn), Zn, selenium (Se), molybdenum (Mo), and Co in the milk of jennies postpartum (p < 0.05); ME also increased the levels of potassium (K), iron (Fe), and Mn in plasma and K and Fe in milk (p < 0.05). The levels of Ca, K, Mg, P, Fe, Cu, Mn, Co, Se, Zn, and Mo in plasma and milk gradually decreased with increasing postpartum time. Their contents were the highest at 0 h postpartum, rapidly decreased after 24 h postpartum, and declined to the lowest on day 14 postpartum. The interaction between dietary energy level and postpartum time showed that although the concentrations of the minerals Ca, P, K, Mg, Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn, Co, Se, and Mo decreased in jennies' plasma and milk in the treatment groups with different energy levels as postpartum time increased, the pattern of change was also influenced by dietary energy level. The influence of dietary energy level in late gestation on the mineral content of milk and plasma during the postpartum colostrum phase was higher than that during the milk phase. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that, under the current experimental conditions, the mineral content of the colostrum, milk, and plasma of jennies after parturition was dependent on the dietary energy level during late gestation.

A review of the biological activities of lactoferrin: mechanisms and potential applications

Lactoferrin, a multifunctional iron-binding protein found in milk and other body fluids, possesses numerous biological activities. The functional activity of lactoferrin lies not only in its iron-binding capacity but also in the molecular mechanisms by which it can affect important chemical components in the host. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying these activities remain unelucidated. In this paper, we review the structure, properties, and contents of different lactoferrin milk sources. The different biological activities, namely antibacterial, antiviral, immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, bone regeneration, and improved metabolic disorder bioactivities, and the associated potential mechanisms of lactoferrin are summarized with the aim of providing a reference for the development of lactoferrin-related products.

The use of mare's milk for yogurt ice cream and synbiotic ice cream production

During the last years, growing interest in the use of mare's milk in food production is observed. The subject of the study was to evaluate the feasibility of mare's milk for the production of yogurt ice cream and synbiotic ice cream. Four variants of mare's milk ice cream were developed: ice cream with yogurt bacteria without inulin (YO) and with 2% of inulin (YO+I), synbiotic ice cream with 2% inulin and Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus (LCR+I) and with Lactiplantibacillus plantarum (LP+I). Ice creams were enriched with inulin in order to evaluate its influence on the viability of LAB and on the product quality. Physicochemical, textural and sensory analyses were performed. Count of viable bacteria cells was also evaluated. Obtained ice creams did not differ in terms of protein, fat and total solids content (1.85-1.91%, 7.33-7.58% and 24.66-26.96% respectively), but differed in acidity. Ice cream YO, the only one without inulin, had the highest acidity, what suggests that inulin decrease this parameter. Regardless the type of LAB starter culture and inulin addition, samples had the same range of overrun (35.20-44.03%) and melting rate (73.49-79.87%). However the variant of ice cream influenced textural properties and colour parameters. All obtained mare's milk ice creams had high overall sensory quality. It was noticed, that ice cream with inulin had higher count of LAB (>7logCFU/g), than sample without inulin (>6logCFU/g). In conclusion, mare's milk may be considered as feasible raw material for yogurt ice cream and synbiotic ice cream production.

Comprehensive review of milk fat globule membrane proteins across mammals and lactation periods in health and disease

Milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) is a three-layer membrane-like structure encasing natural milk fat globules (MFGs). MFGM holds promise as a nutritional supplement because of the numerous physiological functions of its constituent protein. This review summarizes and compares the differences in MFGM protein composition across various species, including bovines, goats, camels, mares, and donkeys, and different lactation periods, such as colostrum and mature milk, as assessed by techniques such as proteomics and mass spectrometry. We also discuss the health benefits of MFGM proteins throughout life. MFGM proteins promote intestinal development, neurodevelopment, and glucose and lipid metabolism by upregulating tight junction protein expression, brain function-related genes, and glucose and fatty acid biosynthesis processes. We focus on the mechanisms underlying these beneficial effects of MFGM proteins. MFGM proteins activate key substances in in signaling pathways, such as the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/protein kinase B, mitogen-activated protein kinase, and myosin light chain kinase signaling pathways. Overall, the consumption of MFGM proteins plays an essential role in conferring health benefits, some of which are important throughout the mammalian life cycle.

Effect of processing methods on the distribution of mineral elements in goat milk fractions

Milk and dairy products are excellent sources of mineral elements, including Ca, P, Mg, Na, K, and Zn. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of nonthermal (homogenization) and thermal (heat treatment) treatments on the distribution of mineral elements in 4 milk fractions: fat, casein, whey protein, and aqueous phase. The study results revealed that the distribution of mineral elements (such as Mg and Fe) in fat fractions is extremely low, whereas significant mineral elements such as Ca, Zn, Fe, and Cu are mostly dispersed in casein fractions. For nontreated goat milk, Mo is the only element identified in the whey protein fraction, whereas K and Na are mostly found in the aqueous phase. Mineral element concentrations in fat (K, Zn, and so on) and casein fractions (Fe, Mo, and so on) increased dramatically after homogenization. Homogenization greatly decreased the concentration of mineral elements in the whey protein fraction (Ca, Na, and so on) and aqueous phase (Fe, Cu, and so on). After heat treatment, the element content in the fat fraction and casein fraction increased greatly when compared with raw milk, such as Cu and Mg in the fat fraction, Na and Cu in the whey protein fraction, the concentration of components such as Mg and Na in casein fraction increased considerably. In contrast, after homogenization, Zn in the aqueous phase decreased substantially, whereas Fe increased significantly. Therefore, both homogenization and heat treatment have an effect on the mineral element distribution in goat milk fractions.

Evaluating the effects of temperature and agitation on biofilm formation of bacterial pathogens isolated from raw cow milk

OBJECTIVES

To study the effect of agitation and temperature on biofilm formation (cell aggregates embedded within a self-produced matrix) by pathogenic bacteria isolated from Raw cow milk (RCM).

METHODS

A 40 RCM samples were gathered from eight dairy farms in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. After bacterial culturing and isolation, gram staining was performed, and all pathogenic, identified using standard criteria established by Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ), and non-pathogenic bacteria were identified using VITEK-2 and biochemical assays. To evaluate the effects of temperature and agitation on biofilm formation, isolated pathogenic bacteria were incubated for 24 h under the following conditions: 4 °C with no agitation (0 rpm), 15 °C with no agitation, 30 °C with no agitation, 30 °C with 60 rpm agitation, and 30 °C with 120 rpm agitation. Then, biofilms were measured using a crystal violet assay.

RESULTS

Of the eight farm sites, three exhibited non-pathogenic bacterial contamination in their raw milk samples. Of the total of 40 raw milk samples, 15/40 (37.5%; from five farms) were contaminated with pathogenic bacteria. Overall, 346 bacteria were isolated from the 40 samples, with 329/346 (95.1%) considered as non-pathogenic and 17/346 (4.9%) as pathogenic. Most of the isolated pathogenic bacteria exhibited a significant (p < 0.01) increase in biofilm formation when grown at 30 °C compared to 4 °C and when grown with 120 rpm agitation compared to 0 rpm.

CONCLUSION

Herein, we highlight the practices of consumers in terms of transporting and storing (temperature and agitation) can significantly impact on the growth of pathogens and biofilm formation in RCM.

A Review on Camel Milk Composition, Techno-Functional Properties and Processing Constraints

Camel milk plays a critical role in the diet of peoples belongs to the semi-arid and arid regions. Since prehistoric times, camel milk marketing was limited due to lacking the processing facilities in the camel-rearing areas, nomads practiced the self-consumption of raw and fermented camel milk. A better understanding of the techno-functional properties of camel milk is required for product improvement to address market and customer needs. Despite the superior nutraceutical and health promoting potential, limited camel dairy products are available compared to other bovines. It is a challenging impetus for the dairy industry to provide diversified camel dairy products to consumers with superior nutritional and functional qualities. The physicochemical behavior and characteristics of camel milk is different than the bovine milk, which poses processing and technological challenges. Traditionally camel milk is only processed into various fermented and non-fermented products; however, the production of commercially important dairy products (cheese, butter, yogurt, and milk powder) from camel milk still needs to be processed successfully. Therefore, the industrial processing and transformation of camel milk into various products, including fermented dairy products, pasteurized milk, milk powder, cheese, and other products, require the development of new technologies based on applied research. This review highlights camel milk's processing constraints and techno-functional properties while presenting the challenges associated with processing the milk into various dairy products. Future research directions to improve product quality have also been discussed.

Production and characterization of anti-hypertensive and anti-diabetic peptides from fermented sheep milk with anti-inflammatory activity: in vitro and molecular docking studies

BACKGROUND

The present study aimed to evaluate the anti-hypertensive and anti-diabetic activities from biologically active peptides produced by fermented sheep milk with Lacticaseibacillus paracasei M11 (MG027695), as well as to purify and characterize the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory and anti-diabetic peptides produced from fermented sheep milk.

RESULTS

After 48 h of fermentation at 37 °C, sheep milk demonstrated significant changes in anti-diabetic effects and ACE-I effects, with inhibition percentages observed for ACE inhibition (76.32%), α-amylase (70.13%), α-glucosidase (70.11%) and lipase inhibition (68.22%). The highest level of peptides (9.77 mg mL-1) was produced by optimizing the growth conditions, which included an inoculation rate of 2.5% and a 48 h of incubation period. The comparison of molecular weight distributions among protein fractions was conducted through sodium dodecyl-sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis analysis, whereas spots were separated using 2D gel electrophoresis according to both the molecular weight and pH. Peptide characterization with ultra-filtration membranes at 3 and 10 kDa allowed the study to assess molecular weight-based separation. Nitric oxide generated by lipopolysaccharide and the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines in RAW 264.7 immune cells were both inhibited by sheep milk fermented with M11. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy was employed to assess changes in functional groups after fermentation, providing insights into the structural changes occurring during fermentation.

CONCLUSION

The present study demonstrates that fermentation with L. paracasei (M11) led to significant changes in fermented sheep milk, enhancing its bioactive properties, notably in terms of ACE inhibition and anti-diabetic activities, and the generation of peptides with bioactive properties has potential health benefits. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Nutritional Quality and Socio-Ecological Benefits of Mare Milk Produced under Grazing Management

This review discusses the scientific evidence that supports the nutritional value of mare milk and how its properties are essentially achieved when mares are managed under grazing conditions. Mare milk's similarity with the chemical composition of human milk makes this food and its derived products not only suitable for human consumption but also an interesting food regarding human health. The contribution of horse breeding under grazing management to other socio-ecological benefits generated by equine farms is also highlighted. Both the high added value of mare milk and the socio-ecological benefits derived from pasture-based systems could be explored to improve the performance of equine farms located in arid and semi-arid areas or in regions with moderately harsh environmental conditions as equids have a strong adaptation capacity.

Dynamic Gastrointestinal Digestion of Bovine, Caprine and Ovine Milk Reconstituted from Commercial Whole Milk Powders

The global dairy market has been increasingly diversified with more dairy product offerings of milk products from different animal species. Meanwhile, milk powders remain the main exported dairy product format due to their ease of transportation. In this work, we studied the structural changes, protein hydrolysis and nutrient delivery during dynamic gastric digestion and small intestinal digestion of cow, goat and sheep milk reconstituted from commercial whole milk powders. The results show that the reconstituted milks digest similarly to processed fresh milk. The digestion behaviors of the three reconstituted ruminant milks are broadly similar (gastric coagulation, kinetics of gastric emptying of protein and fat and the high digestibility in the small intestine) with some differences, which are likely contributed by the processing history of the milk powders. The delivery of individual amino acids to the small intestine differed between the early and late stages of gastric digestion, which were primarily affected by the abundance of amino acids in caseins and whey proteins but also by the difference between milk types associated with their gastric coagulation behaviors. This work showed that powdered milk is similar to fresh processed milk in digestion behavior, and the inherent differences between ruminant milks can be modified by processing treatments.

Dynamic In Vitro Gastric Digestion Behaviour of Commercial Infant Formulae Made with Cow, Goat and Sheep Milk

There are a wide range of commercial infant formulae available on the market. These are made using milk from different species, such as goat, sheep, and cow. The different protein compositions of these milks and the process used during infant-formulae manufacture, such as heat treatment, may impact the digestion of nutrients. This study compared the effect of protein composition and heat treatment on the in vitro gastric digestion behaviour of commercial infant formulae made with cow, goat, and sheep milk using a dynamic infant human gastric simulator (IHGS). During the simulated dynamic gastric digestion, the goat milk infant formula (GIF) showed earlier signs of aggregate formation compared to cow milk infant formula (CIF) and sheep milk infant formula (SIF). In addition, the microstructures of GIF chyme showed fragmented and porous structures. On the contrary, CIF formed dense protein networks that trapped oil droplets, whereas SIF exhibited a microstructure of smooth oil droplets surrounded by fewer protein networks. The different aggregation behaviours and aggregate structures of the three infant-formulae chyme were related to their different protein compositions, especially the different casein compositions. Furthermore, the open fragile structure of GIF aggregates provided easier access to pepsin, allowing it to hydrolyse protein. The results from the present study provided some information to assist in understanding the coagulation and digestion behaviours of commercial infant formulae made from different species of milk.

Occurrence, antimicrobial susceptibility, and resistance genes of Staphylococcus aureus in milk and milk products in the Arsi highlands of Ethiopia

BACKGROUND

In Ethiopia, milk production and handling practices often lack proper hygiene measures, leading to the potential contamination of milk and milk products with Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), including methicillin-resistant strains, posing significant public health concerns. This study aimed to investigate the occurrence, antimicrobial susceptibility profiles and presence of resistance genes in S. aureus strains isolated from milk and milk products.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was conducted in the Arsi highlands, Oromia, Ethiopia from March 2022 to February 2023. A total of 503 milk and milk product samples were collected, comprising 259 raw milk, 219 cottage cheese, and 25 traditional yogurt samples. S. aureus isolation and coagulase-positive staphylococci enumeration were performed using Baird-Parker agar supplemented with tellurite and egg yolk. S. aureus was further characterized based on colony morphology, Gram stain, mannitol fermentation, catalase test, and coagulase test. Phenotypic antimicrobial resistance was assessed using the Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion method, while the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was employed for confirming the presence of S. aureus and detecting antimicrobial resistance genes.

RESULTS

S. aureus was detected in 24.9% of the milk and milk products, with the highest occurrence in raw milk (40.9%), followed by yogurt (20%), and cottage cheese (6.4%). The geometric mean for coagulase-positive staphylococci counts in raw milk, yogurt, and cottage cheese was 4.6, 3.8, and 3.2 log10 CFU/mL, respectively. Antimicrobial resistance analysis revealed high levels of resistance to ampicillin (89.7%) and penicillin G (87.2%), with 71.8% of the isolates demonstrating multidrug resistance. Of the 16 S. aureus isolates analyzed using PCR, all were found to carry the nuc gene, with the mecA and blaZ genes detected in 50% of these isolates each.

CONCLUSION

This study revealed the widespread distribution of S. aureus in milk and milk products in the Arsi highlands of Ethiopia. The isolates displayed high resistance to ampicillin and penicillin, with a concerning level of multidrug resistance. The detection of the mecA and blaZ genes in selected isolates is of particular concern, highlighting a potential public health hazard and posing a challenge to effective antimicrobial treatment. These findings highlight the urgent need to enhance hygiene standards in milk and milk product handling and promote the rational use of antimicrobial drugs. Provision of adequate training for all individuals involved in the dairy sector can help minimize contamination. These measures are crucial in addressing the threats posed by S. aureus, including methicillin-resistant strains, and ensuring the safety of milk and its products for consumers.

Potential role of camel, mare milk, and their products in inflammatory rheumatic diseases

Milk and dairy products serve as a significant dietary component for people all over the world. Milk is a source of essential nutrients such as carbohydrates, protein, fats, and water that support newborns' growth, development, and physiological processes. Milk contains various essential biological compounds that contribute to overall health and well-being. These compounds are crucial in immune system regulation, bone health, and gut microbiota. Milk and dairy products are primarily from cows, buffalos, goats, and sheep. Recently, there has been a notable increase in camel and mare milk consumption and its associated products due to an increasing attraction to ethnic cuisines and a greater awareness of food biodiversity. Camel and mare milk possess diverse nutritional and therapeutic properties, displaying potential functional foods. Camel milk has been linked to various health advantages, encompassing antihypertensive, antidiabetic, antiallergic, anticarcinogenic, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory properties. Camel milk has exhibited notable efficacy in mitigating inflammation and oxidative stress, potentially offering therapeutic benefits for inflammatory disorders. Nevertheless, although extensively recorded, the potential health benefits of mare's milk have yet to be investigated, including its impact on inflammatory conditions. This article highlights the therapeutic potential of camel and mare milk and its derived products in treating inflammatory rheumatic disorders, specifically focusing on their anti-inflammatory and immune-regulatory capabilities. These alternative types of milk, which do not come from cows, offer potential avenues for investigating innovative strategies to regulate and reduce inflammatory conditions.

Exploring Interrelationships between Colour, Composition, and Coagulation Traits of Milk from Cows, Goats, and Sheep

This study explores the interrelationships between the composition, coagulation, and colour of sheep, goat, and cow milk to identify their similarities and differences and to assess whether the relationships between the variables are common to all species or whether they emerge from species-specific relationships. For this purpose, 2400 individual milk samples were analysed. The differences and similarities between the species were determined using discriminant analysis and cluster analysis. The results show a clear differentiation between species. Sheep milk stands out for its cheesemaking capacity and shows similarities with goat milk in composition and coagulation. Nonetheless, colorimetry highlights a greater similarity between sheep and cow milk. Composition and colorimetry were more discriminating than coagulation, and the variables that differed the most were fat, protein, curd yield, lightness, and red-green balance. Using canonical correlation, the interrelationships between the different sets of variables were explored, revealing patterns of common variation and species-specific relationships. Colorimetric variables were closely related to milk solids in all species, while in sheep milk, an inverse relationship with lactose was also identified. Furthermore, a strong relationship was revealed for all species between colour and curd yield. This could be modelled and applied to estimate the technological value of milk, proving colorimetry as a useful tool for the dairy industry.

Effects of Different Heat Treatments on Yak Milk Proteins on Intestinal Microbiota and Metabolism

Dairy products are susceptible to modifications in protein oxidation during heat processing, which can lead to changes in protein function, subsequently affecting intestinal health. Despite being a unique nutritional source, yak milk has not been thoroughly examined for the effects of its oxidized proteins on intestinal microbiota and metabolism. Hence, this study employed different heat treatment methods (low-temperature pasteurization, high-temperature pasteurization, and high-temperature sterilization) to induce oxidation in yak milk proteins. The study then assessed the degree of oxidation in these proteins and utilized mice as research subjects. Using metagenomics and metabolomics methods, this study examined the structure of intestinal microbial communities and metabolic products in mice consuming oxidized yak milk. The results showed a decrease in carbonyl and total thiol contents of yak milk proteins after different heat treatments, indicating that heat treatment causes oxidation in yak milk proteins. Metagenomic analysis of mouse intestinal microbiota revealed significant changes in 66 genera. In the high-temperature sterilization group (H), key differential genera included Verrucomicrobiales, Verrucomicrobiae, Akkermansiaceae, and 28 others. The high-temperature pasteurization group (M) mainly consisted of Latilactobacillus, Bacillus, and Romboutsia. The low-temperature pasteurization group (L) primarily comprised of Faecalibacterium, Chaetomium, Paenibacillaceae, Eggerthella, Sordariales, and 33 others. Functionally, compared to the control group (C), the H group upregulated translation and energy metabolism functions, the L group the M group significantly upregulated metabolism of other amino acids, translation, and cell replication and repair functions. Based on metabolomic analysis, differential changes in mouse metabolites could affect multiple metabolic pathways in the body. The most significantly affected metabolic pathways were phenylalanine metabolism, vitamin B6 metabolism, steroid hormone biosynthesis, and pantothenate and CoA biosynthesis. The changes were similar to the functional pathway analysis of mouse metagenomics, affecting amino acid and energy metabolism in mice. In summary, moderate oxidation of yak milk proteins exhibits a positive effect on mouse intestinal microbiota and metabolism. In conclusion, yak milk has a positive effect on mouse intestinal microflora and metabolism, and this study provides a scientific basis for optimizing dairy processing technology and further developing and applying yak milk.

Site-specific glycoproteomic analysis of purified lactoferrin from human and animal milk

Lactoferrin is a highly glycosylated protein, which have important biological functions in the growth and development of neonates. However, the glycoforms and glycosylation sites differed between species. The aim of the study was to identify the glycosylation profile (including glycosites, glycan structures, and glycoforms) of purified lactoferrin from human and animal (cow, goat, sheep) milk by using site-specific glycoproteomics technique. In total, a number of 89 N-glycans were identified in human and animal milk lactoferrin. We identified three N-glycosites with 23 different compositions of N-glycans in cow lactoferrin (CLF), four distinctive N-glycosites with 34 dissimilar N-glycan compositions in goat lactoferrin (GLF), five N-glycosites with 57 different N-glycan compositions in sheep lactoferrin (SLF), while five unique N-glycosites with 50 different N-glycan compositions were ascertained in human lactoferrin (HLF). HLF had the most complex glycan, while animal lactoferrin had the most high-mannose glycoforms. The results of this study further our understanding of lactoferrin differences between human and animal milk, which can provide a perspective on the analysis of differences in functional characteristics.

Increasing the milk productivity of Kazakh jabe horses

The purpose of the study was to determine the milk productivity and chemical composition of the milk of mares of the Kazakh breed of the jabe type (KJ) and the Novoaltay-Kazakh crossbreeds of the 1st generation (NA x KJ) in the conditions of herd keeping. To determine the milk productivity of mares, 2 experimental groups were formed with a total of 30 mares, 15 individuals were selected in each group. The studied animals were formed according to the principle of pairs of analogues in the context of full-age groups from 5 to 11 years. Kazakh horses of the jabe type in the group of experimental mares in milk have an average live weight of 433.5 kg, and are significantly inferior to the Novoaltay-Kazakh crosses (515.3 kg). The body measurements were 142.0-149.0-174.9-18.2 cm in Kazakh horses of the jabe type, and 150.1-157.1-186.7-20.02 cm, respectively, in Novoaltay-Kazakh crossbreeds. According to the results of studies, the milkiness of mares of the Novoaltay-Kazakh crosses for 105 days of lactation averaged 1932 liters or higher by 25.2% (487.2 liters) than the milkiness of mares of the Kazakh breed of the jabe type. As a result of studies on the composition of milk of mares of different genotypes, it was found that in mares of Kazakh jabe, on average, protein and fat indicators compared to Novoaltay-Kazakh crossbreeds were higher by 0.07% and 0.05%. In the course of determining the live weight of mares among the experimental groups, it was found that the Novoaltay-Kazakh crossbreeds, on average, had a higher live weight of 515.3 kg or higher compared to the Kazakh jabe by 81.8 kg (15.8%). Thus, the studies have proved the prospects of using stallions of the Novoaltay breed to increase the milkiness of local Kazakh horses of the jabe type in herd and pasture conditions.

Proteomics and Peptidomics As a Tool to Compare the Proteins and Endogenous Peptides in Human, Cow, and Donkey Milk

Cow's milk is the most widely used ingredient in infant formulas. However, its specific protein composition can cause allergic reactions. Finding alternatives to replace cow's milk and fill the nutritional gap with human milk is essential for the health of infants. Proteomic and peptidomic techniques have supported the elucidation of milk's nutritional ingredients. Recently, omics approaches have attracted increasing interest in the investigation of milk because of their high throughput, precision, sensitivity, and reproducibility. This review offers a significant overview of recent developments in proteomics and peptidomics used to study the differences in human, cow, and donkey milk. All three types of milks were identified to have critical biological functions in human health, particularly in infants. Donkey milk proteins were closer in composition to human milk, were less likely to cause allergic reactions, and may be developed as novel raw materials for formula milk powders.

Application of Near-Infrared Spectroscopy and Fuzzy Improved Null Linear Discriminant Analysis for Rapid Discrimination of Milk Brands

The quality of milk is tightly linked to its brand. A famous brand of milk always has good quality. Therefore, this study seeks to design a new fuzzy feature extraction method, called fuzzy improved null linear discriminant analysis (FiNLDA), to cluster the spectra of collected milk for identifying milk brands. To elevate the classification accuracy, FiNLDA was applied to process the near-infrared (NIR) spectra of milk acquired by the portable near-infrared spectrometer. The principal component analysis and Savitzky-Golay (SG) filtering algorithm were employed to lower dimensionality and eliminate noise in this system, respectively. Thereafter, improved null linear discriminant analysis (iNLDA) and FiNLDA were applied to attain the discriminant information of the NIR spectra. At last, the K-nearest neighbor classifier was utilized for assessing the performance of the identification system. The results indicated that the maximum classification accuracies of LDA, iNLDA and FiNLDA were 74.7%, 88% and 94.67%, respectively. Accordingly, the portable NIR spectrometer in combination with FiNLDA can classify milk brands correctly and effectively.

Regulation of iron metabolism is critical for the survival of Salmonella Typhimurium in pasteurized milk

Salmonella is known to survive in raw/pasteurized milk and cause foodborne outbreaks. Lactoferrin, present in milk from all animal sources, is an iron-binding glycoprotein that limits the availability of iron to pathogenic bacteria. Despite the presence of lactoferrins, Salmonella can grow in milk obtained from different animal sources. However, the mechanism by which Salmonella overcomes iron scarcity induced by lactoferrin in milk is not evaluated yet. Salmonella employs the DNA binding transcriptional regulator Fur (ferric update regulator) to mediate iron uptake during survival in iron deplete conditions. To understand the importance of Fur in Salmonella milk growth, we profiled the growth of Salmonella Typhimurium Δfur (ST4/74Δfur) in both bovine and camel milk. ST4/74Δfur was highly inhibited in milk compared to wild-type ST4/74, confirming the importance of Fur mediated regulation of iron metabolism in Salmonella milk growth. We further studied the biology of ST4/74Δfur to understand the importance of iron metabolism in Salmonella milk survival. Using increasing concentrations of FeCl3, and the antibiotic streptonigrin we show that iron accumulates in the cytoplasm of ST4/74Δfur. We hypothesized that the accumulated iron could activate oxidative stress via Fenton's reaction leading to growth inhibition. However, the inhibition of ST4/74Δfur in milk was not due to Fenton's reaction, but due to the 'iron scarce' conditions of milk and microaerophilic incubation conditions which made the presence of the fur gene indispensable for Salmonella milk growth. Subsequently, survival studies of 14 other transcriptional mutants of ST4/74 in milk confirmed that RpoE-mediated response to extracytoplasmic stress is also important for the survival of Salmonella in milk. Though we have data only for fur and rpoE, many other Salmonella transcriptional factors could play important roles in the growth of Salmonella in milk, a theme for future research on Salmonella milk biology. Nevertheless, our data provide early insights into the biology of milk-associated Salmonella.

Metabolite profiling of peripheral blood plasma in pigs in early postnatal life fed whole bovine, caprine or ovine milk

Ruminants' milk is commonly used for supplying nutrients to infants when breast milk is unavailable or limited. Previous studies have highlighted the differences between ruminants' milk composition, digestion, absorption, and fermentation. However, whether consuming different ruminants' milk impact the appearance of the circulatory blood metabolites in the early postnatal life is not well understood. The analysis conducted here aimed to determine the effect of feeding exclusively whole milk from bovine, caprine or ovine species to pigs, approximately 7 days-old for 15 days, on circulatory blood plasma metabolites. Relative intensities of plasma metabolites were detected using a liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry based metabolomic approach. Seven polar and 83 non-polar (lipids) metabolites in plasma were significantly different (false discovery rate < 0.05) between milk treatments. These included polar metabolites involved in amino acid metabolism and lipids belonging to phosphatidylcholine, lysophosphatidylcholine, sphingomyelin, and triglycerides. Compared to the caprine or bovine milk group, the relative intensities of polar metabolites and unsaturated triglycerides were higher in the peripheral circulation of the ovine milk group. In contrast, relative intensities of saturated triglycerides and phosphatidylcholine were higher in the bovine milk group compared to the ovine or caprine milk group. In addition, correlations were identified between amino acid and lipid intake and their appearance in peripheral blood circulation. The results highlighted that consuming different ruminants' milk influences the plasma appearance of metabolites, especially lipids, that may contribute to early postnatal life development in pigs.

Effect of Heat Treatment on Protein Self-Digestion in Ruminants' Milk

This study investigated whether heat treatments (raw, 63 °C for 30 min, and 85 °C for 5 min) affect protein hydrolysis by endogenous enzymes in the milk of ruminants (bovine, ovine, and caprine) using a self-digestion model. Self-digestion consisted of the incubation for six hours at 37 °C of the ruminants' milk. Free amino group concentration was measured by the o-phthaldialdehyde method, and peptide sequences were identified by chromatography-mass spectrometry. Results showed that heat treatments prior to self-digestion decreased the free NH2 by 59% in bovine milk heated at 85 °C/5 min, and by 44 and 53% in caprine milk heated at 63 °C/30 min and 85 °C/5 min, respectively. However, after self-digestion, only new free amino groups were observed for the raw and heated at 63 °C/30 min milk. β-Casein was the most cleaved protein in the raw and heated at 63 °C/30 min bovine milk. A similar trend was observed in raw ovine and caprine milk. Self-digestion increased 6.8-fold the potential antithrombin peptides in the bovine milk heated at 63 °C/30 min. Enhancing bioactive peptide abundance through self-digestion has potential applications in the industry for functional products. Overall, heat treatments affected the free amino groups according to the species and heat treatment applied, which was reflected in the varying degrees of cleaved peptide bonds and peptides released during self-digestion.

Differences in small intestinal apparent amino acid digestibility of raw bovine, caprine, and ovine milk are explained by gastric amino acid retention in piglets as an infant model

Background

The rate of stomach emptying of milk from different ruminant species differs, suggesting that the small intestinal digestibility of nutrients could also differ across these milk types.

Objective

To determine the small intestinal amino acid (AA) digestibility of raw bovine, caprine, and ovine milk in the piglet as an animal model for the infant.

Methods

Seven-day-old piglets (n = 12) consumed either bovine, caprine, or ovine milk diets for 15 days (n = 4 piglets/milk). On day 15, fasted piglets received a single meal of fresh raw milk normalized for protein content and containing the indigestible marker titanium dioxide. Entire gastrointestinal tract contents were collected at 210 min postprandially. Apparent AA digestibility (disappearance) in different regions of the small intestine was determined.

Results

On average, 35% of the dietary AAs were apparently taken up in the small intestine during the first 210 min post-feeding, with 67% of the AA digestibility occurring in the first quarter (p ≤ 0.05) and 33% in the subsequent two quarters. Overall, except for isoleucine, valine, phenylalanine, and tyrosine, the small intestinal apparent digestibility of all AAs at 210 min postprandially in piglets fed ovine milk was, on average, 29% higher (p ≤ 0.05) than for those fed bovine milk. Except for lysine, there was no difference in the apparent digestibility (p > 0.05) of any AAs between piglets fed caprine milk or ovine milk. The apparent digestibility of alanine was higher (p ≤ 0.05) in piglets fed caprine milk than those fed bovine milk. When apparent digestibility was corrected for gastric AA retention, only small differences in the small intestinal apparent digestibility of AAs were observed across milk types.

Conclusion

Bovine, caprine and ovine milk had different apparent small intestinal AA digestibility at 210 min postprandially. When corrected for gastric AA retention, the differences in apparent digestibility across species largely disappeared. The apparent AA digestibility differed across small intestinal locations.

Evaluation of Chicken Egg Yolk Plasma and Low-Density Lipoprotein Alone or Enriched with Ewe or Cow Skim Milk in Tris-Citric Acid-Based Diluent for Cryostorage of Ram Semen

The main purpose of the current study was to find suitable and optimum levels of protectants among chicken egg yolk plasma (CEYP) and low-density lipoproteins (LDLs), alone or supplemented with ewe or cow skim milk, for cryopreservation of ram semen. In Experiments 1 and 2, the CEYP (28%) freezing extender was enriched with ewe or cow milk (2.5%, 5%, 10%, or 20%; v/v), respectively. In Experiments 3 and 4, the semen extender was prepared by varying the amounts of fresh or lyophilized LDL (lyo-LDL), respectively. Finally, ewe or cow skim milk was added to the freshly extracted LDL extender and the quality of frozen-thawed semen was examined (Experiments 5 and 6). Kinematics of spermatozoa (assessed using a computer-assisted sperm analysis system), viability, functionality of the plasma membrane, and levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) were evaluated. Results revealed that addition of ewe or cow skim milk (5%, 10%, or 20%; v/v) to the CEYP diluent enhanced kinematics, viability, and membrane integrity of spermatozoa compared with the control (p < 0.05). Moreover, fresh LDL diluent was more effective than lyo-LDL in the cryosurvival of ram spermatozoa. In addition, enrichment of fresh LDL diluent with ewe or cow skim milk improved different variables of spermatozoa compared with the control (p < 0.05). Levels of MDA and TAC were not affected by adding ewe or cow milk to the diluents (p > 0.05). In conclusion, enrichment of fresh LDL extenders with ewe or cow milk also is proposed as an approach to preserve ram semen quality against cold shock and cryodamage injuries.

A new insight into the polar lipid composition in mature breast milk and ewe milk with comparative lipidomics analysis

Polar lipids play essential biological functions in energy storage, both as structural components of cell membranes and as signaling molecules. In this study, a comprehensive UHPLC-QTRAP-MS-based lipidomic analysis of mature breast milk (BM) and ewe milk (EM) was conducted. Through the analysis, a total of 362 polar lipid species from 14 subclasses were characterized, including 60 phosphatidylethanolamines (PEs), 59 phosphatidylcholines (PCs), 38 phosphatidylinositols (PIs), 35 sphingomyelins (SMs), and 34 ceramides (Cers). Of these, 139 lipid molecules were screened as significantly differentially expressed polar lipids (SDPLs) between the two kinds of milk based on the following criteria: a variable importance in projection (VIP) value > 1.0, a false discovery rate-adjusted P-value < 0.0001, and a fold change (FC) of either > 2.0 or < 0.5; these included 111 upregulated and 28 downregulated SDPLs in EM compared to BM. Among these SDPLs, the content of PE (16:1_18:0) was found to be significantly higher in EM compared to BM (FC = 69.5853, P < 0.0001). Moreover, sphingolipid metabolism and glycerophospholipid metabolism were determined to be vital metabolic pathways. This was derived from the finding that PE, PC, SM, and PI were key lipid metabolites in the two kinds of milk that were related to these two metabolic pathways. This study provides new insights into the characterization of SDPLs in mammalian milk, and also provides a theoretical basis for optimizing infant formula.

Antimicrobial Activity of Milk Whey in Different Mammals

Antimicrobial activity of milk whey in different mammals against Candida albicans yeast cells was studied by a spectrophotometric method. The activity increased in the order goat→horse→camel→cow→human→mouse. The level of whey activity in mice was higher by 3 and 10 times than in humans and goats, respectively. Similar changes were noted for activity of the whey fraction <100 kDa containing a complex of antimicrobial polypeptides, and there was a direct correlation between these two parameters (r=0.881; p<0.05). The total activity of whey had a high degree of correlation with the content of serum albumin (r=0.992); in mice, the level of serum albumin in the milk whey was close to that in blood serum. Interspecific differences between the activity of whey in mammals may be associated with qualitative and quantitative variability of the antimicrobial polypeptide composition, as well as their synergistic or antagonistic interaction with each other.