Baicalein improves liver inflammation in diabetic db/db mice by regulating HMGB1/TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway

The Effect of the Extraction Conditions on the Antioxidant Activity and Bioactive Compounds Content in Ethanolic Extracts of Scutellaria baicalensis Root

Ethanolic extracts of Baikal skullcap (Scutellaria baicalensis) root were obtained using various techniques, such as maceration, maceration with shaking, ultrasound-assisted extraction, reflux extraction, and Soxhlet extraction. The influence of the type and time of isolation technique on the extraction process was studied, and the quality of the obtained extracts was determined by spectrophotometric and chromatographic methods to find the optimal extraction conditions. Radical scavenging activity of the extracts was analyzed using DPPH assay, while total phenolic content (TPC) was analyzed by the method with the Folin-Ciocalteu reagent. Application of gas chromatography with mass selective detector (GC-MS) enabled the identification of some bioactive substances and a comparison of the composition of the particular extracts. The Baikal skullcap root extracts characterized by both the highest antioxidant activity and content of phenolic compounds were obtained in 2 h of reflux and Soxhlet extraction. The main biologically active compounds identified in extracts by the GC-MS method were wogonin and oroxylin A, known for their broad spectrum of biological effects, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, anticancer, and others.

Research progress on rodent models and its mechanisms of liver injury

The liver is the most important organ for biological transformation in the body and is crucial for maintaining the body's vital activities. Liver injury is a serious pathological condition that is commonly found in many liver diseases. It has a high incidence rate, is difficult to cure, and is prone to recurrence. Liver injury can cause serious harm to the body, ranging from mild to severe fatty liver disease. If the condition continues to worsen, it can lead to liver fibrosis and cirrhosis, ultimately resulting in liver failure or liver cancer, which can seriously endanger human life and health. Therefore, establishing an rodent model that mimics the pathogenesis and severity of clinical liver injury is of great significance for better understanding the pathogenesis of liver injury patients and developing more effective clinical treatment methods. The author of this article summarizes common chemical liver injury models, immune liver injury models, alcoholic liver injury models, drug-induced liver injury models, and systematically elaborates on the modeling methods, mechanisms of action, pathways of action, and advantages or disadvantages of each type of model. The aim of this study is to establish reliable rodent models for researchers to use in exploring anti-liver injury and hepatoprotective drugs. By creating more accurate theoretical frameworks, we hope to provide new insights into the treatment of clinical liver injury diseases.

Tert-butylhydroquinone attenuates LPS-induced pyroptosis of IPEC-J2 cells via downregulating HMGB1/TLR4/NF-κB axis

Inflammatory response induced by biological stress usually occurs in weaning piglets, it reduces the production performance of piglets and even causes death. Tert-butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) is a food additive that has the effect of anti-inflammation and anti-oxidation. However, there are few reports related to the protective mechanisms of TBHQ on lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induced injury in intestinal porcine epithelial (IPEC-J2) cells. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction and western blot analysis, respectively, detected the mRNA levels and protein expressions related to pyroptosis, tight junction (TJ) protein and high-mobility group box 1/toll-like receptor 4/nuclear factor kappa-B (HMGB1/TLR4/NF-κB) axis. Localisation and expression of NOD-like receptor pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3), HMGB1 and P-NF-κB proteins detected by immunofluorescence. The results showed that TBHQ (12.5 and 25 μM) can increase cell activity and reduce intracellular lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) levels in a dose-dependent manner. LPS significantly decreases cell viability and increases the LDH level. However, pretreatment with TBHQ evidently increases cell viability and decreases the LDH level of IPEC-J2 cells. In addition, treatment with LPS decreased the mRNA level and protein expression of zonula occludens-1, occludin and claudin-1, and increased the mRNA level and protein expression of pyroptosis and HMGB1/TLR4/NF-κB axis. Interestingly, pretreatment with TBHQ increased the TJ protein expressions as well as decreased the mRNA level and protein expressions of pyroptosis and HMGB1/TLR4/NF-κB axis. Moreover, the results of immunofluorescence showed that TBHQ significantly reduced the expression of NLRP3, HMGB1 and P-NF-κB in LPS-induced injury of IPEC-J2 cells. Therefore, we come to the conclusion that TBHQ attenuates LPS-induced pyroptosis in IPEC-J2 cells through downregulation of the HMGB1/TLR4/NF-κB axis, TBHQ may become a potential feed additive for preventing inflammatory diarrhoea in piglets.

Dietary flavonoids prevent diabetes through epigenetic regulation: advance and challenge

The pathophysiology of diabetes has been studied extensively in various countries, but effective prevention and treatment methods are still insufficient. In recent years, epigenetics has received increasing attention from researchers in exploring the etiology and treatment of diabetes. DNA methylation, histone modifications, and non-coding RNAs play critical roles in the occurrence, maintenance, and progression of diabetes and its complications. Therefore, preventing or reversing the epigenetic alterations that occur during the development of diabetes may reduce the individual and societal burden of the disease. Dietary flavonoids serve as natural epigenetic modulators for the discovery of biomarkers for diabetes prevention and the development of alternative therapies. However, there is limited knowledge about the potential beneficial effects of flavonoids on the epigenetics of diabetes. In this review, the multidimensional epigenetic effects of different flavonoid subtypes in diabetes were summarized. Furthermore, it was discussed that parental flavonoid diets might reduce diabetes incidence in offspring, which represent a promising opportunity to prevent diabetes in the future. Future work will depend on exploring anti-diabetic effects of different flavonoids with different epigenetic regulation mechanisms and clinical trials.Highlights• "Epigenetic therapy" could reduce the burden of diabetic patients• "Epigenetic diet" ameliorates diabetes• Targeting epigenetic regulations by dietary flavonoids in the diabetes prevention• Dietary flavonoids prevent diabetes via transgenerational epigenetic inheritance.

Neuroprotective strategies for neonatal hypoxic-ischemic brain damage: Current status and challenges

Neonatal hypoxic-ischemic brain damage (HIBD) is a prominent contributor to both immediate mortality and long-term impairment in newborns. The elusive nature of the underlying mechanisms responsible for neonatal HIBD presents a significant obstacle in the effective clinical application of numerous pharmaceutical interventions. This comprehensive review aims to concentrate on the potential neuroprotective agents that have demonstrated efficacy in addressing various pathogenic factors associated with neonatal HIBD, encompassing oxidative stress, calcium overload, mitochondrial dysfunction, endoplasmic reticulum stress, inflammatory response, and apoptosis. In this review, we conducted an analysis of the precise molecular pathways by which these drugs elicit neuroprotective effects in animal models of neonatal hypoxic-ischemic brain injury (HIBD). Our objective was to provide a comprehensive overview of potential neuroprotective agents for the treatment of neonatal HIBD in animal experiments, with the ultimate goal of enhancing the feasibility of clinical translation and establishing a solid theoretical foundation for the clinical management of neonatal HIBD.

Protective Effect of Fucoxanthin on Zearalenone-Induced Hepatic Damage through Nrf2 Mediated by PI3K/AKT Signaling

Hepatotoxic contaminants such as zearalenone (ZEA) are widely present in foods. Marine algae have a wide range of potential applications in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and food products. Research is ongoing to develop treatments and products based on the compounds found in algae. Fucoxanthin (FXN) is a brown-algae-derived dietary compound that is reported to prevent hepatotoxicity caused by ZEA. This compound has multiple biological functions, including anti-diabetic, anti-obesity, anti-microbial, and anti-cancer properties. Furthermore, FXN is a powerful antioxidant. In this study, we examined the effects of FXN on ZEA-induced stress and inflammation in HepG2 cells. MTT assays, ROS generation assays, Western blots, and apoptosis analysis were used to evaluate the effects of FXN on ZEA-induced HepG2 cell inflammation. Pre-incubation with FXN reduced the cytotoxicity of ZEA toward HepG2 cells. FXN inhibited the ZEA-induced production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including IL-1 β, IL-6, and TNF-α. Moreover, FXN increased HO-1 expression in HepG2 by activating the PI3K/AKT/NRF2 signaling pathway. In conclusion, FXN inhibits ZEA-induced inflammation and oxidative stress in hepatocytes by targeting Nrf2 via activating PI3K/AKT signaling.

Anti-inflammatory potential of baicalein combined with silk fibroin protein in a zebrafish model (Danio rerio)

Baicalein (BA) is a flavonoid with wide-ranging pharmacological activity. However, its biological evaluation is hampered by its low solubility in aqueous medium, making forms of incorporation that improve its solubility necessary. In the present study, BA was combined with a solution of silk fibroin protein (SF), a biomaterial used too as a drug carrier, to evaluate the anti-inflammatory potential of this combination, in vivo, in an experimental model, zebrafish (Danio rerio). Baicalein-silk fibroin (BASF) improved the DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl-hydrate) free radical scavenging rate (95%) in comparison with BA in solution. The acute toxicity study and histopathological analysis in zebrafish showed that BASF has low cytotoxic potential, except for the maxim dose of 2000 mg/kg. The use of BA in combination with SF enhanced the anti-inflammatory effect of flavonoids by inducing inflammatory peritoneal edema through carrageenan and achieved 77.6% inhibition of abdominal edema at a dose of 75 mg/kg. The results showed that the BASF, significantly increases the bioavailability and therapeutic effect of flavonoids and several results observed in this study may help in the development of new drugs.

Flavonoids' Dual Benefits in Gastrointestinal Cancer and Diabetes: A Potential Treatment on the Horizon?

Diabetes and gastrointestinal cancers (GI) are global health conditions with a massive burden on patients' lives worldwide. The development of both conditions is influenced by several factors, such as diet, genetics, environment, and infection, which shows a potential link between them. Flavonoids are naturally occurring phenolic compounds present in fruits and vegetables. Once ingested, unabsorbed flavonoids reaching the colon undergo enzymatic modification by the gut microbiome to facilitate absorption and produce ring fission products. The metabolized flavonoids exert antidiabetic and anti-GI cancer properties, targeting major impaired pathways such as apoptosis and cellular proliferation in both conditions, suggesting the potentially dual effects of flavonoids on diabetes and GI cancers. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the impact of flavonoids on diabetes and GI cancers in four significant pathways. It also addresses the synergistic effects of selected flavonoids on both conditions. While this is an intriguing approach, more studies are required to better understand the mechanism of how flavonoids can influence the same impaired pathways with different outcomes depending on the disease.

Protective Effects of Zingiberis Carbonisata-Based Carbon Dots on Diabetic Liver Injury in Mice

To explain the active components of ZRC-CDs from the perspective of nanomaterials and investigate the potential mechanism for the treatment of diabetic liver injury, the structure, electron transfer properties, and elemental composition of ZRC-CDs were characterized. The protective effects of ZRC-CDs on the diabetic liver injury were demonstrated using the Alloxan-induced diabetic model. The ZRC-CDs are spherical, with a diameter ranging from 1.0–4.5 nm and a yield of 0.56%. The results showed that ZRC-CDs decreased the levels of blood glucose in diabetic mice and had a mitigating effect on elevated ALT and AST. More studies found that ZRC-CDs were able to decrease the levels of inflammatory cytokines and suppress the protein expression in related signaling pathways.

Regulation of Cell Signaling Pathways and Non-Coding RNAs by Baicalein in Different Cancers

Landmark discoveries in molecular oncology have provided a wide-angle overview of the heterogenous and therapeutically challenging nature of cancer. The power of modern ‘omics’ technologies has enabled researchers to deeply and comprehensively characterize molecular mechanisms underlying cellular functions. Interestingly, high-throughput technologies have opened new horizons for the design and scientific fool-proof evaluation of the pharmacological properties of targeted chemical compounds to tactfully control the activities of the oncogenic protein networks. Groundbreaking discoveries have galvanized the expansion of the repertoire of available pharmacopoeia to therapeutically target a myriad of deregulated oncogenic pathways. Natural product research has undergone substantial broadening, and many of the drugs which constitute the backbone of modern pharmaceuticals have been derived from the natural cornucopia. Baicalein has gradually gained attention because of its unique ability to target different oncogenic signal transduction cascades in various cancers. We have partitioned this review into different sub-sections to provide a broader snapshot of the oncogenic pathways regulated by baicalein. In this review, we summarize baicalein-mediated targeting of WNT/β-catenin, AKT/mTOR, JAK/STAT, MAPK, and NOTCH pathways. We also critically analyze how baicalein regulates non-coding RNAs (microRNAs and long non-coding RNAs) in different cancers. Finally, we conceptually interpret baicalein-mediated inhibition of primary and secondary growths in xenografted mice.

Demystifying phytoconstituent-derived nanomedicines in their immunoregulatory and therapeutic roles in inflammatory diseases

In the past decades, phytoconstituents have appeared as critical mediators for immune regulations among various diseases, both in eukaryotes and prokaryotes. These bioactive molecules, showing a broad range of biological functions, would hold tremendous promise for developing new therapeutics. The discovery of phytoconstituents' capability of functionally regulating immune cells and associating cytokines, suppressing systemic inflammation, and remodeling immunity have rapidly promoted the idea of their employment as anti-inflammatory agents. In this review, we discuss various roles of phyto-derived medicines in the field of inflammatory diseases, including chronic inflammation, autoimmune diseases, and acute inflammatory disease such as COVID-19. Nevertheless, traditional phyto-derived medicines often concurred with their clinical administration limitations, such as their lack of cell specificity, inefficient cytoplasmic delivery, and rapid clearance by the immune system. As alternatives, phyto-derived nano-approaches may provide significant benefits. Both unmodified and engineered nanocarriers present the potential to serve as phytoconstituent delivery systems to improve therapeutic physio-chemical properties and pharmacokinetic profiles. Thus, the development of phytoconstituents' nano-delivery designs, their new and perspective approaches for therapeutical applications are elaborated herein.

Baicalein inhibits macrophage lipid accumulation and inflammatory response by activating the PPARγ/LXRα pathway

Lipid accumulation and inflammatory response are two major risk factors for atherosclerosis. Baicalein, a phenolic flavonoid widely used in East Asian countries, possesses a potential atheroprotective activity. However, the underlying mechanisms remain elusive. This study was performed to explore the impact of baicalein on lipid accumulation and inflammatory response in THP-1 macrophage-derived foam cells. Our results showed that baicalein up-regulated the expression of ATP binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1), ABCG1, liver X receptor α (LXRα), and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ), promoted cholesterol efflux, and inhibited lipid accumulation. Administration of baicalein also reduced the expression and secretion of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6. Knockdown of LXRα or PPARγ with siRNAs abrogated the effects of baicalein on ABCA1 and ABCG1 expression, cholesterol efflux, lipid accumulation as well as pro-inflammatory cytokine release. In summary, these findings suggest that baicalein exerts a beneficial effect on macrophage lipid accumulation and inflammatory response by activating the PPARγ/LXRα signaling pathway.

Paeoniflorin ameliorates diabetic liver injury by targeting the TXNIP-mediated NLRP3 inflammasome in db/db mice

BACKGROUND

Diabetic liver injury (DLI) is a complication that damages the quality of life in diabetes patients. While paeoniflorin (PF) exhibits anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects, no data are available on whether PF protects against DLI. Therefore, we evaluated the effects of PF on hepatic steatosis and inflammation in db/db mice, a type 2 diabetes model.

METHODS

In this study, we investigated the effects of PF on DLI using diabetic mice model (db/db mice) and high glucose (HG)-induced mouse AML12 cells. The effects of PF on TXNIP-mediated NLRP3 inflammasome in vivo and in vitro were evaluated by Western bloting, RT-PCR, immunohistochemistry (IHC) and immunofluorescence (IF) analysis. Through molecular docking experiments and cellular thermal shift assay (CETSA), we studied the binding ability of PF to thioredoxin-interacting protein (TXNIP). We use TXNIP siRNA to knock down TXNIP in AML12 cells.

RESULTS

We found that PF reversed abnormal liver function and liver steatosis in db/db mice, while blocking the release of inflammatory cytokines. These effects are associated with PF inhibition of the TXNIP/NLRP3 signaling pathway. Molecular docking experiments and CETSA also demonstrated that TXNIP is a likely target of PF. In HG-treated AML12 cells, TXNIP knockdown eliminated the beneficial effects of PF.

CONCLUSION

Using a combination of animal and in vitro experiments, this study demonstrated for the first time that PF ameliorates DLI through targeting the TXNIP-activated NLRP3 inflammasome. Thus, PF may be a potential therapeutic agent against DLI.

Is Nucleoredoxin a Master Regulator of Cellular Redox Homeostasis? Its Implication in Different Pathologies

Nucleoredoxin (NXN), an oxidoreductase enzyme, contributes to cellular redox homeostasis by regulating different signaling pathways in a redox-dependent manner. By interacting with seven proteins so far, namely disheveled (DVL), protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A), phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK1), translocation protein SEC63 homolog (SEC63), myeloid differentiation primary response gene-88 (MYD88), flightless-I (FLII), and calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II type alpha (CAMK2A), NXN is involved in the regulation of several key cellular processes, including proliferation, organogenesis, cell cycle progression, glycolysis, innate immunity and inflammation, motility, contraction, protein transport into the endoplasmic reticulum, neuronal plasticity, among others; as a result, NXN has been implicated in different pathologies, such as cancer, alcoholic and polycystic liver disease, liver fibrogenesis, obesity, Robinow syndrome, diabetes mellitus, Alzheimer’s disease, and retinitis pigmentosa. Together, this evidence places NXN as a strong candidate to be a master redox regulator of cell physiology and as the hub of different redox-sensitive signaling pathways and associated pathologies. This review summarizes and discusses the current insights on NXN-dependent redox regulation and its implication in different pathologies.

Baicalein Attenuates Severe Polymicrobial Sepsis via lleviating Immune Dysfunction of T Lymphocytes and Inflammation

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effect of baicalein on polymicrobial sepsis-induced immune dysfunction and organ injury.

METHODS

A sepsis model was induced in Sprague-Dawley rats via caecal ligation and puncture (CLP). Specific pathogen free rats were randomly divided into a sham group, CLP group and CLP + baicalein (Bai) group (n=16 each). Rats in the CLP + Bai group were intravenously injected with baicalein (20 mg/kg) at 1 and 10 h after CLP. Survival rate, bacterial load, and organ damage were assessed. Then each group was evaluated at 6, 12, and 24 h to investigate the effect of baicalein on immune cells and inflammatory cytokines in septic rats.

RESULTS

Baicalein treatment significantly improved the survival of septic rats, decreased the bacterial burden, and moderated tissue damage (spleen, liver, and lung), as observed by haematoxylin and eosin staining. Septic rats treated with baicalein had strikingly increased proportions of CD3⁺CD4⁺ T cells and ratios of CD4⁺/CD8⁺ T cells in the peripheral blood and spleen (all P<0.05). Moreover, baicalein treatment decreased the apoptotic rate of whole white blood cells and spleen cells at 24 h after surgery (P<0.05). Baicalein significantly reduced the levels of tumor necrosis factor α and interleukin-6 (IL-6) and increased IL-10, and the expression levels of galectin 9 were also raised in the spleen (P<0.01).

CONCLUSION

Baicalein may be an effective immunomodulator that attenuates overwhelming inflammatory responses in severe abdominal sepsis.

CD73 Attenuates Alcohol-Induced Liver Injury and Inflammation via Blocking TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB Signaling Pathway

Background

Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) is liver damage caused by long-term drinking. Inflammation plays a central role in the progression of ALD. CD73 is a ubiquitously expressed glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored glycoprotein that is a key enzyme that converts ATP into adenosine. Evidence has shown that CD73 plays an important role in many diseases, but the role and mechanism of CD73 in alcohol-induced liver injury and inflammation is still unclear.

Methods

The alcohol-induced liver injury and inflammation mouse model was established. The rAAV9-CD73 was used to overexpress CD73. Isolation of primary macrophages (MΦ) from the liver was conducted. The effects of CD73 on alcohol-induced liver injury and inflammation were evaluated by quantitative real‑time PCR, Western blotting, ELISA, and immunohistochemical assay. Flow cytometry was used to detect the cell cycle and apoptosis.

Results

Our results showed that overexpression of CD73 can reduce alcohol-induced liver damage, lipid accumulation, and the secretion of inflammatory cytokines. pEX3-CD73 can promote RAW264.7 cells proliferation and inhibit apoptosis via suppressing the activation of TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signaling pathway. Inhibition of TLR4 further enhanced the anti-inflammatory effect of overexpression of CD73.

Conclusion

Overexpression of CD73 can reduce alcohol-induced liver injury and inflammation. CD73 may serve as a potential therapeutic target for ALD.

Antioxidant and Inflammatory Effects of Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. Leaves

This study is aimed at identifying the bioactive components in lotus leaf flavonoid extract (LLFE) and analyzing the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of LLFE in vitro and in vivo. The flavonoids in LLFE were determined by UHPLC-MS/MS. The effect of LLFE on damaged 293T cells (H2O2, 0.3 mmol/L) was determined by MTT assay, and the activity of antioxidant enzymes was measured by kits. We studied the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of LLFE on D-Gal/LPS (30 mg/kg·bw and 3 μg/kg·bw)-induced aging mice. We also evaluated the main organ index, pathological changes in the liver, lung, and kidney, liver function index, biochemical index, cytokine level, and mRNA expression level in serum and liver. The results showed that LLFE contains baicalein, kaempferol, kaempferid, quercetin, isorhamnetin, hyperoside, lespenephryl, and rutin. LLFE reduced the oxidative damage sustained by 293T cells, increased the levels of SOD, CAT, GSH, and GSH-Px, and decreased the level of MDA. The animal studies revealed that LLFE reduced oxidative damage and inflammation in injured mice, inhibited increases in AST, ALT, MDA, and NO, increased SOD, CAT, GSH, and GSH-Px levels, upregulated anti-inflammatory cytokines IL-10 and IL-12, and downregulated proinflammatory cytokines IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α, and IFN-γ. Furthermore, the expression of antioxidant- and anti-inflammatory-related mRNA was consistent with the above results.

Detecting Critical Functional Ingredients Group and Mechanism of Xuebijing Injection in Treating Sepsis

Sepsis is a systemic inflammatory reaction caused by various infectious or noninfectious factors, which can lead to shock, multiple organ dysfunction syndrome, and death. It is one of the common complications and a main cause of death in critically ill patients. At present, the treatments of sepsis are mainly focused on the controlling of inflammatory response and reduction of various organ function damage, including anti-infection, hormones, mechanical ventilation, nutritional support, and traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). Among them, Xuebijing injection (XBJI) is an important derivative of TCM, which is widely used in clinical research. However, the molecular mechanism of XBJI on sepsis is still not clear. The mechanism of treatment of "bacteria, poison and inflammation" and the effects of multi-ingredient, multi-target, and multi-pathway have still not been clarified. For solving this issue, we designed a new systems pharmacology strategy which combines target genes of XBJI and the pathogenetic genes of sepsis to construct functional response space (FRS). The key response proteins in the FRS were determined by using a novel node importance calculation method and were condensed by a dynamic programming strategy to conduct the critical functional ingredients group (CFIG). The results showed that enriched pathways of key response proteins selected from FRS could cover 95.83% of the enriched pathways of reference targets, which were defined as the intersections of ingredient targets and pathogenetic genes. The targets of the optimized CFIG with 60 ingredients could be enriched into 182 pathways which covered 81.58% of 152 pathways of 1,606 pathogenetic genes. The prediction of CFIG targets showed that the CFIG of XBJI could affect sepsis synergistically through genes such as TAK1, TNF-α, IL-1β, and MEK1 in the pathways of MAPK, NF-κB, PI3K-AKT, Toll-like receptor, and tumor necrosis factor signaling. Finally, the effects of apigenin, baicalein, and luteolin were evaluated by in vitro experiments and were proved to be effective in reducing the production of intracellular reactive oxygen species in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW264.7 cells, significantly. These results indicate that the novel integrative model can promote reliability and accuracy on depicting the CFIGs in XBJI and figure out a methodological coordinate for simplicity, mechanism analysis, and secondary development of formulas in TCM.

Baicalein alleviates pyroptosis and inflammation in hyperlipidemic pancreatitis by inhibiting NLRP3/Caspase-1 pathway through the miR-192-5p/TXNIP axis

OBJECTIVE

Hyperlipidemia is a main reason of pancreatitis. Baicalein can ameliorate the pathological manifestations of pancreatitis. This study evaluated underlying molecular mechanism of baicalein in hyperlipidemic pancreatitis (HP).

METHODS

HP rat model was successfully established and treated with baicalein. Amylase (AMY) activity and concentrations of triglyceride (TG) and total cholesterol (TC) were detected. Levels of pyroptosis-related proteins (GSDMD, IL-1β, IL-18) were detected by Western blot. Expressions of inflammatory factors (IL-6, TNF-α, IL-4) were detected by ELISA. Toxicity of baicalein on pancreatic acinar cells (PACs) was detected by MTT assay. HP cell model was established by 0.1 mM palmitic acid and CCK-8 stimulation. Target relation of miR-192-5p and TXNIP was predicted and verified by RNA22 v2 database and dual-luciferase reporter assay. Expressions of miR-192-5p and TXNIP were detected by RT-qPCR. Pyroptosis and inflammation in PACs were detected after baicalein treatment combined with silencing miR-192-5p or TXNIP overexpression. Protein levels of NLRP3/Caspase-1 pathway in vivo and vitro were detected.

RESULTS

Baicalein reduced concentrations of TG and TC, AMY activity, and pathological scores in HP rat model, reduced LDH activity, pyroptosis and alleviated inflammation in vivo and in vitro. Mechanically, miR-192-5p targeted TXNIP, and baicalein inhibited pyroptosis and inflammation by up-regulating miR-192-5p and down-regulating TXNIP. Silencing miR-192-5p or TXNIP overexpression partially abolished the anti-pyroptosis and anti-inflammatory effect of baicalein on PACs. Baicalein attenuated HP by inhibiting the NLRP3/Caspase-1 pathway.

CONCLUSION

Baicalein alleviated pyroptosis and inflammation in HP by inhibiting the NLRP3/Caspase-1 pathway through miR-192-5p upregulation and TXNIP inhibition.

Protective effect of carvacrol on liver injury in type 2 diabetic db/db mice

The present study aimed to investigate the protective effect of carvacrol on liver injury in mice with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and to assess its potential molecular mechanism. Mice were divided into three groups (n=15/group): Non-diabetic db/m+ mice group, db/db mice group and db/db mice + carvacrol group. In the db/db mice + carvacrol group, db/db mice were administered 10 mg/kg carvacrol daily by gavage for 6 weeks. Fasting blood glucose and insulin levels were separately examined. Pathological changes were observed using hematoxylin and eosin, Masson's trichrome, periodic acid Schiff and reticular fiber staining. In addition, immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence and western blotting were used to examine the expression levels of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), NF-κB, NALP3, AKT1, phosphorylated (p)-AKT1, insulin receptor (INSR), p-INSR, mTOR, p-mTOR, insulin receptor substrate 1 (IRS1) and p-IRS1 in the liver tissues. The results revealed that carvacrol improved blood glucose and insulin resistance of T2DM db/db mice. After treatment with carvacrol for 6 weeks, the serum levels of TC, TG and LDL-C were markedly reduced, whereas HDL-C levels were significantly increased in db/db mice. Furthermore, carvacrol administration significantly decreased serum ALT and AST levels in db/db mice. Serum BUN, Cre and UA levels were markedly higher in db/db mice compared with those in the control group; however, carvacrol treatment markedly reduced their serum levels in db/db mice. Furthermore, histological examinations confirmed that carvacrol could protect the liver of db/db mice. Carvacrol could ameliorate liver injury induced by T2DM via mediating insulin, TLR4/NF-κB and AKT1/mTOR signaling pathways. The present findings suggested that carvacrol exerted protective effects on the liver in T2DM db/db mice, which could be related to insulin, TLR4/NF-κB and AKT1/mTOR signaling pathways.

Study effect of Baicalein encapsulated/loaded Chitosan-nanoparticle on allergic Asthma pathology in mouse model

Asthma as chronic airway disease has high prevalence in children and imbalance of Th1/Th2 is a critical mechanism in pathogenesis of the asthma. Baicalein as a cell protective and anti-inflammatory flavonoid may have anti-asthma effect. Therefore, for better using lung, baicalein was used in chitosan-nanoparticle as anti-asthma treatment.

Baicalein was loaded and encapsulated in chitosan nanoparticle. The morphology, physical characters (particle size, zeta potential and FT-IR) were analyzed. Drug encapsulation and loading capacity, accumulative release-time were studied. After asthma model producing, the mice were treated with L-B-NP and E-B-NP. At least, MCh challenge test, Cytokines measurement and Lung Histopathology were done.

Nanoparticles had average size 285 ± 25 nm with negative charge −2.5 mV. The L-B-NP decreased penh value and E-B-NP decreased inflammation. Both nanoparticles increased IL-12 and decreased IL-5. Also, L-B-NP decreased mucus secretion in bronchi.

L-B-NP and E-B-NP control immune-allergo-inflammatory response of asthma. L-B-NP controlled AHR and E-B-NP controlled inflammation that can be used as controlling anti-asthma drug.

Bilobalide Enhances AMPK Activity to Improve Liver Injury and Metabolic Disorders in STZ-Induced Diabetes in Immature Rats via Regulating HMGB1/TLR4/NF-κB Signaling Pathway

This study was aimed at examining the effect and underlying mechanisms of bilobalide (BB) on hepatic injury in streptozotocin- (STZ-) induced diabetes mellitus (DM) in immature rats. Immature rats (one day old) were randomly divided into five groups: group I, control nondiabetic rats; group II, STZ-induced, untreated diabetic rats; groups III/IV/V, STZ-induced and BB-treated diabetic rats, which were intraperitoneally injected with BB (2.5 mg/kg, 5 mg/kg, or 10 mg/kg) after 3 days followed by STZ treatment. We observed that BB improved the histopathological changes and maintained normal glucose metabolism, blood lipid, and liver function indicators, such as fasting blood glucose, obesity index, HbA1c, HOMA-IR, fast serum insulin, adiponectin, total cholesterol (TC), triglyceride (TG), high-density lipoprotein (HDL), low-density lipoprotein (LDL), aspartate transaminase (AST), and alanine transaminase (ALT) in STZ-induced DM in immature rats by a biochemical analyzer or ELISA. Meanwhile, Western blot analysis showed that in STZ-induced DM immature rats, BB decreased the expression of apoptosis-related proteins Bax, cleaved caspase-3, and cleaved caspase-9 while enhancing the Bcl-2 expression; BB downregulated the expression of ACC related to fat anabolism, while upregulating the expression of CPT-1 related to fat catabolism. Strikingly, treatment with BB significantly increased the expression of AMPKα1 as well as inhibited HMGB1, TLR4, and p-P65 expression in hepatic tissues of immature DM rats. AMPK inhibitor (compound C, CC) cotreated with BB undermined the protective effect of BB on the liver injury. The results of the present study suggested BB may have a significant role in alleviating liver damage in the STZ-induced immature DM rats.

Effects of Silymarin and Baicalein on Glycogen Storage in the Hepatocytes of Rat Models of Hepatic Injury

Background: An association has been reported between hepatitis and glycogen storage problems. Glycogen storage disease (GSD) type I is induced by G6PD deficiency. Silymarin and baicalein, as herbal agents, have hepatoprotective and antioxidant potentials. Objectives: In this study, we assessed the effects of these herbs on liver glycogen storage problems and hepatitis. Methods: Twenty male rats kept under standard laboratory conditions were divided into four groups, including healthy (control) and hepatotoxicity treated with silymarin, baicalein, or none. The levels of ALT, AST, ALP, LDL, HDL, VLDL, TG, Cho, IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α were measured, and the expression levels of G6PD, CTGF, HMGB1, and P53 were determined. Also, liver histopathology was examined. Results: Treatment with silymarin and baicalein reduced the serum levels of ALT, AST, ALP, LDL, VLDL, TG, Cho, IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α. Silymarin increased G6PD gene expression, and both silymarin and baicalein reduced CTGF, P53, and HMGB1 gene expressions, but silymarin and baicalein had no effects on glycogen storage of hepatocytes. Conclusions: Baicalein and silymarin showed anti-inflammatory effects and could control inflammation and necrotic factors, but they did not affect hepatic glycogen storage.

Natural Aldose Reductase Inhibitor: A Potential Therapeutic Agent for Non-alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease

Aldose reductase (AR) has been reported to be involved in the development of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Hepatic AR is induced under hyperglycemia condition and converts excess glucose to lipogenic fructose, which contributes in part to the accumulation of fat in the liver cells of diabetes rodents. In addition, the hyperglycemia-induced AR or nutrition-induced AR causes suppression of the transcriptional activity of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) α and reduced lipolysis in the liver, which also contribute to the development of NAFLD. Moreover, AR induction in non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) may aggravate oxidative stress and the expression of inflammatory cytokines in the liver. Here, we summarize the knowledge on AR inhibitors of plant origin and review the effect of some plant-derived AR inhibitors on NAFLD/NASH in rodents. Natural AR inhibitors may improve NAFLD at least in part through attenuating oxidative stress and inflammatory cytokine expression. Some of the natural AR inhibitors have been reported to attenuate hepatic steatosis through the regulation of PPARα-mediated fatty acid oxidation. In this review, we propose that the natural AR inhibitors are potential therapeutic agents for NAFLD.

Flavonoids in the Treatment of Diabetes: Clinical Outcomes and Mechanism to Ameliorate Blood Glucose Levels

BACKGROUND

For thousands of years, natural food products have been used as a medicine for treating diseases that affect the human body, including diabetes mellitus (DM). Lately, several investigations have been performed on the flavonoid derivatives of plant origin, and their biological activity has been extensively studied.

METHODS

Given our need to know more mechanisms for treating DM, we performed a thorough research review on treating diabetes mellitus based on flavonoids, their therapeutic potential, and biological action.

RESULTS

Flavonoids reduce complications in addition to their vital role as effective supplements for preventing diabetes mellitus by regulating glucose metabolism, lipid profile, liver enzyme activity, a protein kinase inhibitor, PPAR, and AMPK with NF-κB.

CONCLUSION

The articles that we reviewed showed the positive role of flavonoids, which in a certain way reduce diabetes, but their side effects still need to be studied further.This review is focused on describing the different types of dietary flavonoids along with their mechanisms of reducing blood glucose and enhancing insulin sensitivity, as well as their side effects.

The main bioactive compounds of Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi. for alleviation of inflammatory cytokines: A comprehensive review

Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi., a plant used in traditional Chinese medicine, has multiple biological activities, including anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antitumor, antioxidant, and antibacterial effects, and can be used to treat respiratory tract infections, pneumonia, colitis, hepatitis, and allergic diseases. The main active substances of S. baicalensis, baicalein, baicalin, wogonin, wogonoside, and oroxylin A, can act directly on immune cells such as lymphocytes, macrophages, mast cells, dendritic cells, monocytes, and neutrophils, and inhibit the production of the inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-α, and other inflammatory mediators such as nitric oxide, prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and reactive oxygen species. The molecular mechanisms underlying the immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory effects of the active compounds of S. baicalensis include downregulation of toll-like receptors, activation of the Nrf2 and PPAR signaling pathways, and inhibition of the nuclear thioredoxin system and inflammation-associated pathways such as those of MAPK, Akt, NFκB, and JAK-STAT. Given that in addition to the downregulation of cytokine production, the active constituents of S. baicalensis also have antiviral and antibacterial effects, they may be more promising candidate therapeutics for the prevention of infection-related cytokine storms than are drugs having only antimicrobial or anti-inflammatory activities.

The evaluation of hepatoprotective effects of flavonoids from Scorzonera austriaca Wild against CCl4-induced acute liver injury in vitro and in vivo

Scorzonera austriaca Wild is a traditional herbal medicine; however, little is known with regard to the effect of flavonoids from S. austriaca (FSA) on liver injury induced by Carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄), especially the mechanism remains unknown. Therefore, our paper was designed to investigate the hepatoprotective effect of FSA against CCl₄-induced acute liver injury in vitro and in vivo, with focus on its potential mechanism. The purity of FSA prepared by using polyporous resin column chromatography could reach 94.5%, and seven flavonoid compounds in FSA were identified by using LC-ESI-MS analysis. In vivo results showed that FSA markedly decreased the levels of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and malonaldehyde (MDA) and increased the contents of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px). Furthermore, in vivo and in vitro results confirmed that FSA could inhibit inflammatory response, as evidenced by decreasing the levels of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) through inactivating toll-like receptor-4/nuclear factor-κB (TLR4/NF-κB) signaling pathway. FSA activated autophagy by increasing the ratio of LC3B-II/I and decreasing the protein level of p62 so as to exert its hepatoprotective effect. In general, these evidences suggested that FSA is likely to serve as a potential material for the drugs against chemical hepatic injury.

Melatonin alleviates intestinal injury, neuroinflammation and cognitive dysfunction caused by intestinal ischemia/reperfusion

Intestinal ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) can cause multiple organ damage with extremely high morbidity and mortality. Melatonin has anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative and anti-apoptotic effects against various diseases. This study aimed to explore whether melatonin had a protective effect against intestinal I/R-induced neuroinflammation and cognitive dysfunction, and investigate its potential mechanisms. In this study, melatonin was administered to the rats with intestinal I/R, then histological changes in intestine and brain (frontal cortex and hippocampal CA1 area) tissues and cognitive function were detected, respectively. The encephaledema and blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability were observed. Moreover, the alterations of proinflammatory factors (tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-6 and interleukin-1β), oxidative response (malondialdehyde, superoxide dismutase, and reactive oxygen species), apoptosis and proteins associated with inflammation,including Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), myeloid differentiation factor 88 (Myd88) and phosphorylated nuclear factor kappa beta (NF-κB), and apoptosis (cleaved caspase-3) in brain tissues were examined. Furthermore, the expressions of TLR4, Myd88, and microglial activity were observed by multiple immunofluorescence staining. The results showed that intestinal I/R-induced abnormal neurobehavior and cerebral damage were ameliorated after melatonin treatment, which were demonstrated by improved cognitive dysfunction and aggravated histology. Furthermore, melatonin decreased the levels of proinflammatory factors and oxidative stress in plasma, intestine and brain tissues, attenuated apoptotic cell, and inhibited the expressions of related proteins and the immunoreactivity of TLR4 or Myd88 in microglia in brain tissues. These findings showed that melatonin might relieve neuroinflammation and cognitive dysfunction caused by intestinal I/R, which could be, at least partially, related to the inhibition of the TLR4/Myd88 signaling in microglia.

Purification, characterization, and hypoglycemic properties of eurocristatine from Eurotium cristatum spores in Fuzhuan brick tea

Fuzhuan brick tea (FBT) is a Chinese dark tea that is famous for its significant health benefits, in which Eurotium cristatum (E. cristatum) strains play a vital role in its postfermentation process. In this study, eurocristatine with hypoglycemic activity was discovered for the first time and purified from the spores of E. cristatum growing in FBT. Eurocristatine (98%) was obtained by D-101 macroporous resin-based column chromatography and preparative high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with a C18 column as the stationary phase and 35% acetonitrile in ultrapure water as the mobile phase. Hypoglycemic activity in a Hep-G2 cell hypoglycemic model was used as a screening indicator during purification. The chemical structure of eurocristatine was characterized by ESI/MS, 1H NMR and 13C NMR analyses. The antidiabetic effects of eurocristatine were verified in high-fat diet/streptozocin-induced type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) rats. The results showed that eurocristatine significantly reduced fasting blood glucose. Our study demonstrated that eurocristatine, as a newly discovered hypoglycemic active substance, could be considered a potential candidate for the treatment of diabetes and its complications.

Immunological regulatory effect of flavonoid baicalin on innate immune toll-like receptors

As an essential component of the innate immune system, Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a family of well-recognized ligand-binding receptors found in various organisms and initiate host immune responses. Activation of TLRs signaling pathways lead to the induction of numerous genes that function in host defense. Baicalin is a natural compound from the dry raw root of Scutellaria baicalensis (S. baicalensis) and it has been found to exhibit several pharmaceutical actions, such as anti-inflammation, anti-tumor and antivirus. These biological activities are mainly related to the regulatory effect of baicalin on the host immune response. In this review, we provide an overview of the regulation of baicalin on TLRs signaling pathways in various pathological conditions, and highlight potential targets for the development of the regulatory effect of natural compound from traditional Chinese medicine on innate immune system.

Arctigenin exhibits hepatoprotective activity in Toxoplasma gondii-infected host through HMGB1/TLR4/NF-κB pathway

Toxoplasmosis is a parasitic zoonosis with the highest incidence in humans. Severe lesions due to acute toxoplasmosis have been recorded in the visceral organs including the liver, where hepatocytes and Kupffer cells are important innate immune cells. Arctigenin (AG) is a bioactive ingredient of Arctium lappa L. and increasing evidence suggests that AG exhibits anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) effects. However, the role of AG in acute liver damage induced by T. gondii infection remains unclear. In this study, we analyzed the effects of AG against T. gondii-induced liver damage by establishing an in vitro infection model using a murine liver cell line (NCTC-1469 cells) and an in vivo mouse model with acute T. gondii infection of virulent RH strain. In the current study, AG effectively attenuated hepatocytes apoptosis and inhibited the reproduction of T. gondii. The results of in vitro and in vivo studies showed that AG significantly reduced alanine aminotransferase/aspartate aminotransferase activities and lessened pathological damage of liver. Moreover, AG suppressed T. gondii-induced inducible nitric oxide synthase production. AG also attenuated liver inflammation by inhibiting T. gondii-induced activation of the high-mobility group box1/toll-like receptor 4/nuclear factor-kappa B (HMGB1/TLR4/NF-κB) signaling pathway. These findings demonstrated that AG exhibited prominent hepatoprotective activities in toxoplasmic liver injury with anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting the HMGB1/TLR4/NF-κB signaling axis. Thus, this study provides the basis for the development of new drugs to treat toxoplasmic hepatitis.

Beneficial effects of baicalein on a model of allergic rhinitis

Allergic rhinitis (AR) is a common disease that causes severe inflammation and even disabilities. Previous studies have reported baicalein to have an anti-inflammatory effect. However, the pharmacological action of baicalein on anaphylaxis has not been clarified yet. This study assessed the in vivo protective effect of baicalein post-treatment in an ameliorating ovalbumin (OVA)-sensitized AR rat model. Baicalein attenuated histological alterations, aberrant tissue repair and inflammation after OVA-induced AR. Baicalein reduced the frequency of nasal/ear rubs and sneezes in rats, and inhibited generation of several inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6) in both blood and nasal lavage of rats. Infiltrations of eosinophils, lymphocyte, and neutrophils were decreased in baicalein-administered rats. Furthermore, baicalein inhibited the expression of STAT3 phosphorylation in the nasal mucosa. In summary, baicalein attenuated OVA-induced AR and inflammation, which suggests it as a promising therapeutic agent for the alleviation of AR-associated inflammation and pathology.

Baicalein Neutralizes Hypercholesterolemia-Induced Aggravation of Oxidative Injury in Rats

Hypercholesterolemia is a major risk factor for several cardiovascular and metabolic diseases as it triggers oxidative and pro-inflammatory cascades. Baicalein (BL) is a natural flavone with multiple therapeutic properties. The present study aimed to evaluate the potential protective effect of BL supplementation in hypercholesterolaemic rats. Rats were fed a high-cholesterol diet (HCD) for six weeks and then orally administered BL at two doses (25 and 50 mg/kg body weight/day) for four weeks. Serum lipids, liver enzymes, cardiac enzymes, renal markers, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-10 (IL-10), caspase-3, nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin-2 (PGE-2) were measured. In renal, hepatic, and cardiac tissues, thiobarbituric acid-reactive (TBARS) substance, glutathione (GSH), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activities were measured. The altered levels of lipoproteins, aminotransferases, creatine kinases, and urea in hypercholesterolemic animals were significantly corrected by BL. Inflammatory and apoptotic biomarkers were also markedly attenuated in the HCD group following BL treatment. Hypercholesterolemia considerably induced the lipid peroxidation product, TBARS, and oxidative radicals in cardiac, hepatic, and renal tissues, which were attenuated by BL treatment, particularly, at the 50 mg/kg/day dose. BL enhanced the activities of superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase that were suppressed by HCD. Histological alterations induced by cholesterol overload in cardiac, hepatic, and renal tissues were ameliorated by BL supplementation. Our results show that the BL treatments (25 and 50 mg/kg/day) to HCD fed rats improved all the altered parameters. These results demonstrate that BL treatment improves cardiac, renal and hepatic dysfunctions in hypercholesterolaemic rats by activation of cellular antioxidant enzymes and/or suppression of inflammatory cytokines.

Wnt signaling mediates TLR pathway and promote unrestrained adipogenesis and metaflammation: Therapeutic targets for obesity and type 2 diabetes

Diabesity is the combination of type 2 diabetes and obesity characterized by chronic low-grade inflammation. The Wnt signaling act as an evolutionary pathway playing crucial role in regulating cellular homeostasis and energy balance from hypothalamus to metabolic organs. Aberrant activity of certain appendages in the canonical and non-canonical Wnt system deregulates metabolism and leads to adipose tissue expansion, this key event initiates metabolic stress causing metaflammation and obesity. Metaflammation induced obesity initiates abnormal development of adipocytes mediating through the non-canonical Wnt signaling inhibition of canonical Wnt pathway to fan the flames of adipogenesis. Moreover, activation of toll like receptor (TLR)-4 signaling in metabolic stress invites immune cells to release pro-inflammatory cytokines for recruitment of macrophages in adipose tissues, further causes polarization of macrophages into M1(classically activated) and M2 (alternatively activated) subtypes. These events end with chronic low-grade inflammation which interferes with insulin signaling in metabolic tissues to develop type 2 diabetes. However, there is a dearth in understanding the exact mechanism of Wnt-TLR axis during diabesity. This review dissects the molecular facets of Wnt and TLRs that modulates cellular components during diabesity and provides current progress, challenges and alternative therapeutic strategies at preclinical and clinical level.

FlavoDb: a web-based chemical repository of flavonoid compounds

There are many online resources that focus on chemical diversity of natural compounds, but only handful of resources exist that focus solely on flavonoid compounds and integrate structural and functional properties; however, extensive collated flavonoid literature is still unavailable to scientific community. Here we present an open access database 'FlavoDb' that is focused on providing physicochemical properties as well as topological descriptors that can be effectively implemented in deducing large scale quantitative structure property models of flavonoid compounds. In the current version of database, we present data on 1, 19,400 flavonoid compounds, thereby covering most of the known structural space of flavonoid class of compounds. Moreover, effective structure searching tool presented here is expected to provide an interactive and easy-to-use tool for obtaining flavonoid-based literature and allied information. Data from FlavoDb can be freely accessed via its intuitive graphical user interface made available at following web address: http://bioinfo.net.in/flavodb/home.html.

Flavonoids and Their Anti-Diabetic Effects: Cellular Mechanisms and Effects to Improve Blood Sugar Levels

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a prevailing global health metabolic disorder, with an alarming incidence rate and a huge burden on health care providers. DM is characterized by the elevation of blood glucose due either to a defect in insulin synthesis, secretion, binding to receptor, or an increase of insulin resistance. The internal and external factors such as obesity, urbanizations, and genetic mutations could increase the risk of developing DM. Flavonoids are phenolic compounds existing as secondary metabolites in fruits and vegetables as well as fungi. Their structure consists of 15 carbon skeletons and two aromatic rings (A and B) connected by three carbon chains. Flavonoids are furtherly classified into 6 subclasses: flavonols, flavones, flavanones, isoflavones, flavanols, and anthocyanidins. Naturally occurring flavonoids possess anti-diabetic effects. As in vitro and animal model's studies demonstrate, they have the ability to prevent diabetes and its complications. The aim of this review is to summarize the current knowledge addressing the antidiabetic effects of dietary flavonoids and their underlying molecular mechanisms on selected pathways: Glucose transporter, hepatic enzymes, tyrosine kinase inhibitor, AMPK, PPAR, and NF-κB. Flavonoids improve the pathogenesis of diabetes and its complications through the regulation of glucose metabolism, hepatic enzymes activities, and a lipid profile. Most studies illustrate a positive role of specific dietary flavonoids on diabetes, but the mechanisms of action and the side effects need more clarification. Overall, more research is needed to provide a better understanding of the mechanisms of diabetes treatment using flavonoids.

Traditional Chinese medicine combined with hepatic targeted drug delivery systems: A new strategy for the treatment of liver diseases

Liver diseases are clinically common and present a substantial public health issue. Many of the currently available drugs for the treatment of liver diseases suffer from limitations that include low hepatic distribution, lack of target effects, poor in vivo stability and adverse effects on other organs. Consequently, conventional treatment of hepatic diseases is ineffective. TCM is commonly used in the treatment of liver diseases worldwide, particularly in China, and has advantages over conventional therapy. HTDDS can be designed to enhance clinical efficacy in the treatment of liver diseases. We have conducted an extensive review of 335 studies reported since 1964. These included about 166 references involving the treatment of liver diseases with TCM (covering active components of TCM, single TCM and Chinese medicine formulas), 169 reports on HTDDS and background studies on liver-related diseases. Here we review the long history of TCM in the treatment of liver diseases.We have also reviewed the status of studies on active components of TCM using nanotechnology-based targeted delivery systems to provide support for further research and development of TCM-based targeted preparations for the treatment of liver disease.

Allicin Improves Lung Injury Induced by Sepsis via Regulation of the Toll-Like Receptor 4 (TLR4)/Myeloid Differentiation Primary Response 88 (MYD88)/Nuclear Factor kappa B (NF-κB) Pathway

Background

The aim of this study was to assess the effects and mechanisms of allicin in a sepsis-induced lung injury in vivo study.

Material/Methods

The rats (n=54) were divided into 6 groups: Normal, DMSO, LPS, LPS+LD, LPS+MD, and LPS+HD groups. After being treated by different methods, we collected the lung tissues of different groups and evaluated the pathology by HE staining and positive apoptosis cells by TUNEL. We assessed the W/D ratio, inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β), and relative protein expressions (TLR4, MyD88, NF-κB, caspase-3, and caspase-9) by IHC assay.

Results

Compared with LPS group, the lung injury and positive cell number of allicin treated groups were significantly improved with dose-dependent (P<0.05, respectively) and the W/D ratio and TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β concentration were significantly down-regulation compared with those of LPS group with dose-dependent (P<0.05, respectively). By IHC, the TLR4, MyD88, NF-κB, caspase-3 and caspase-9 protein activities of allicin treated groups were significantly suppressed compared with those of LPS group (P<0.05, respectively) in lung tissues.

Conclusions

This in vivo study shows that allicin improved sepsis-induced lung injury by regulation of TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB.

Baicalein improves glucose metabolism in insulin resistant HepG2 cells

Insulin resistance (IR) is the primary pathogenesis of Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi is a traditional Chinese herbal medicine, often used in the clinical treatment of T2DM. Baicalein which is considered to have anti-IR effects is one of its active ingredients. IR-induced HepG2 cells were used to investigate the effect of baicalein on glucose metabolism and insulin-signaling pathway, using metformin as a positive control. We found that the use of both baicalein and metformin increased the glucose consumption of IR cells, as well as increasing the pyruvate kinase (PK) and glucokinase (GCK) activity. Also increased was the expression levels of insulin receptor (InsR), insulin receptor substrate-1 (IRS-1), phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), protein kinase B (AKT) pathway and glucose transporter 2 (GLUT2). Reduced expression levels were found in that of glucose 6 phosphatase (G6Pase) and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK) mRNA. The results confirmed that baicalein (10^-6 and 10^-5 mol/L) promotes glucose uptake and glycolysis, inhibits gluconeogenesis of hepatocytes to improve glucose metabolism, and may be as a result from regulation of InsR/IRS-1/PI3K/AKT pathway. Additionally, baicalein has large concentration range on inhibiting IR, and at lower concentrations has strong anti-IR hepatocyte activity.

Anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative stress and novel therapeutic targets for cholestatic liver injury

Cholestasis is a pathological process in which bile drainage is poor for a variety of reasons. Many studies have shown that cholestatic liver injury is a neutrophil-mediated inflammatory response, and oxidative stress induced by neutrophils is the main mechanism of liver cell death. The literature summarizes the bile acid signaling pathway, the neutrophil chemotaxis recruitment process during cholestasis, and the oxidative stress damage produced by neutrophil activation, summarizes the latest research progress. Sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor (S1PR) is a potential therapeutic target for cholestasis that reduces neutrophil aggregation without inhibiting systemic immune status. Early growth response factor 1 (Egr-1) may play a central role in the inflammation induced by cholestasis, and it is also a potential therapeutic target to inhibit the inflammation induced by cholestasis. Strengthening the antioxidant system of hepatocytes to cope with oxidative stress of neutrophils is a feasible treatment for cholestatic liver injury.

Hepatoprotective Effect of Baicalein Against Acetaminophen-Induced Acute Liver Injury in Mice

Baicalein (BAI), one of the main components of Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi, possesses numerous pharmacological properties, including anti-cancer, anti-oxidative, anti-virus and anti-bacterial activities. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the hepatoprotective effect of baicalein against acetaminophen (APAP)-exposed liver injury in mice, and elucidate the underlying hepatoprotective mechanism. Baicalein pretreatment significantly alleviated the elevation of IL-6, IL-1β and TNF-α in serum and hepatic in a dose-dependent manner. It also dose-dependently reduced the hepatic malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration, as well as the depletion of hepatic superoxide dismutase (SOD), hepatic glutathione (GSH) and hepatic catalase (CAT). Moreover, pretreatment with baicalein significantly ameliorated APAP-exposed liver damage and histological hepatocyte changes. Baicalein also relieved APAP-induced autophagy by regulating AKT/mTOR pathway, LC3B and P62 expression. Furthermore, the hepatoprotective effect of baicalein to APAP-induced liver injury involved in Jak2/Stat3 and MAPK signaling pathway. Taken together, our findings suggested that baicalein exhibits the ability to prevent liver from APAP-induced liver injury and provided an underlying molecular basis for potential applications of baicalein to cure liver injuries.

Association of High Mobility Group Box Protein B1 Gene Polymorphisms with Pneumonia Susceptibility and Severity

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the relationship between the high mobility group box protein B1 (HMGB1) single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) rs1412125, rs2249825, and rs1045411 with pneumonia in terms of susceptibility, severity, and inflammatory response.

METHODS

The genotypes of HMGB1 rs1412125 (-1615T > C), rs2249825 (3814C > G), and rs1045411 (2262C > T) loci in 328 patients with community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) and 317 healthy subjects were analyzed by Sanger sequencing. The expression and secretion of the inflammatory cytokines HMGB1, interleukin (IL)-10, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and IL-6 were determined after lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation of peripheral whole blood cells.

RESULTS

The risk of CAP was higher in carriers of the mutant HMGB1 rs1412125 and rs2249825 alleles than those that had the wild type alleles (adjusted odds ratio [OR] = 1.241; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.061-1.448; p = 0.007; adjusted OR = 1.225; 95% CI = 1.038-1.427; p = 0.016, respectively). Moreover, the mutation-carrying patients with CAP were more likely to develop severe community-acquired pneumonia (SCAP). There was no correlation between the HMGB1 rs1045411 SNP alleles and CAP or SCAP (p > 0.05). The expression and secretion of the inflammatory cytokines HMGB1, IL-10, TNF-α, and IL-6 was significantly higher in LPS-stimulated peripheral blood among patients with mutations at the rs1412125 and rs2249825 loci compared with those with wild type alleles (p < 0.05). The 30-day mortality rates for CAP patients with mutations at the rs1412125 and rs2249825 loci of HMGB1 were significantly higher than those that had wild type alleles. The mortality rate difference between rs1045411 wild-type CAP patients and mutant was not significant (p = 0.789).

CONCLUSION

SNPs at the rs1412125 and rs2249825 loci of HMGB1 are associated with pneumonia in terms of susceptibility, severity, and inflammatory response.

HMGB1: A Common Biomarker and Potential Target for TBI, Neuroinflammation, Epilepsy, and Cognitive Dysfunction

High mobility group box protein 1 (HMGB1) is a ubiquitous nuclear protein released by glia and neurons upon inflammasome activation and activates receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) and toll-like receptor (TLR) 4 on the target cells. HMGB1/TLR4 axis is a key initiator of neuroinflammation. In recent days, more attention has been paid to HMGB1 due to its contribution in traumatic brain injury (TBI), neuroinflammatory conditions, epileptogenesis, and cognitive impairments and has emerged as a novel target for those conditions. Nevertheless, HMGB1 has not been portrayed as a common prognostic biomarker for these HMGB1 mediated pathologies. The current review discusses the contribution of HMGB1/TLR4/RAGE signaling in several brain injury, neuroinflammation mediated disorders, epileptogenesis and cognitive dysfunctions and in the light of available evidence, argued the possibilities of HMGB1 as a common viable biomarker of the above mentioned neurological dysfunctions. Furthermore, the review also addresses the result of preclinical studies focused on HMGB1 targeted therapy by the HMGB1 antagonist in several ranges of HMGB1 mediated conditions and noted an encouraging result. These findings suggest HMGB1 as a potential candidate to be a common biomarker of TBI, neuroinflammation, epileptogenesis, and cognitive dysfunctions which can be used for early prediction and progression of those neurological diseases. Future study should explore toward the translational implication of HMGB1 which can open the windows of opportunities for the development of innovative therapeutics that could prevent several associated HMGB1 mediated pathologies discussed herein.

Activation of the 12/15 lipoxygenase pathway accompanies metabolic decline in db/db pre-diabetic mice

The 12-lipoxygenase (12LO) pathway is a promising target to reduce islet dysfunction, adipose tissue (AT) inflammation and insulin resistance. Optimal pre-clinical models for the investigation of selective12LO inhibitors in this context have not yet been identified. The objective of this study was to characterize the time course of 12LO isoform expression and metabolite production in pancreatic islets and AT of C57BLKS/J-db/db obese diabetic mouse in a pre-diabetic state in order to establish a suitable therapeutic window for intervention with selective lipoxygenase inhibitors. Mice have 2 major 12LO isoforms -the leukocyte type (12/15LO) and the platelet type (p12LO) and both are expressed in islets and AT. We found a sharp increase in protein expression of 12/15LO in the pancreatic islets of 10-week old db-/- mice compared to 8- week old counterparts. Immunohistochemistry showed that the increase in islet 12/15LO parallels a decline in islet number. Analysis of 12- and 15-hydroperoxytetraeicosanoid acids (HETE)s showed a 2-3 fold increase especially in 12(S)-HETE that mirrored the increase in 12/15LO expression in islets. Analysis of AT and stromal vascular fraction (SVF) showed a significant increase of platelet 12LO gene expression along with 12- and 15- HETEs. The data demonstrate that the db/db mouse is a suitable model for investigation of 12/15LO inhibitors in the development of inflammatory mediated type 2 diabetes, with a narrow window of therapeutic intervention prior to 8 weeks of age.