Hypoglycemic effect of inulin combined with ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides in T2DM rats

Mushroom-derived bioactive compounds pharmacological properties and cancer targeting: a holistic assessment

Worldwide, cancer is a great cause of death and a public health issue. Cancer has been the leading cause of death in developing nations for many years. Cancers are typically treated with surgery, immunotherapy, chemotherapy, and radiation therapies. However, these techniques have some undesirable side effects, including neurological illness, high toxicity levels, discomfort, and mental stress. Biologically active compounds discovered in mushrooms may be utilized to reduce ill effects and increase the efficacy of the current therapies. Mushrooms have efficient therapeutic activities such as antimicrobial, antitumor, antidiabetic, anticancer, and antioxidant activity. Bioactive compounds like polysaccharides, terpenoids, β-glucan, steroids, polyphenols, flavonoids, proteins, and peptides have precisely well-recognized anticancer activity. In this review paper, we described the biomedical activities of the mushroom against various cancers. The immune-modulating components in mushrooms activate NK cells and macrophages to target cancer cells. Due to immunomodulatory properties of mushroom-derived bioactive compounds in cancer therapy to highlight the need for further research in this area further studies needs to validate in clinical samples.

Blending polysaccharides from three edible mushrooms represents a promising approach for augmenting their anti-oxidant and anti-fatigue activities

It has been well documented that a number of polysaccharides with potent free-radical scavenging capability possess notable anti-fatigue activity. Interestingly, recent evidence also suggested mixed polysaccharides derived from multiple sources may yield augmented bioactivities compared to the polysaccharides from a single source. Therefore, in the current study, we investigated the anti-oxidant and anti-fatigue activities of a blend of polysaccharides isolated from three mushrooms. The optimal ratio of Pleurotus eryngii polysaccharide, Agrocybe aegerita polysaccharide, and Agaricus bisporus polysaccharide was firstly screened out by in vitro antioxidant assays with a Z-score comprehensive evaluation method. Then, the fatigue-reducing effects of the polysaccharide mixture at optimal ratio (1:2:2) were studied in mice. The results showed that the polysaccharide mixture exerted desirable fatigue-reducing effect evidence by significantly extended exhaustion time in the weight-loaded swimming assay (from 9.45 ± 3.06 min to 27.65 ± 19.84 min). Moreover, the observed fatigue-reducing effect may be attributed to its capacity to decrease fatigue-related metabolites, increase muscle glycogen reserves, and regulate energy metabolism-related transcripts in muscle tissue. Taken together, these findings highlighted the potential application of blending polysaccharides from multiple mushroom sources in mitigating fatigue.

Structural characteristics of polysaccharide isolated from Potentilla anserina L. and its mitigating effect on Zearalenone-induced oxidative stress in Sertoli cells

The present study aims to characterize the structural features of a natural polysaccharide called PAP-1b extracted from the roots of Potentilla anserina L. and to evaluate its antioxidant activity. Structural characterization indicated that PAP-1b with a molecular weight of 1.22 × 104 Da was primarily composed of glucose and galactose. Methylation and NMR analyses showed that PAP-1b mainly consisted of →4)-α-D-Glcp-(1→, →4,6)-β-D-Glcp-(1→, →3,4)-α-Glcp-(1→ and α-D-Glcp-(1→). Subsequently, we evaluated the antioxidant activity of PAP-1b using zearalenone (ZEA)-induced oxidative stress in porcine Sertoli cells (SCs) as a model. Cellular experiments revealed that PAP-1b significantly attenuated ZEA-induced oxidative stress in SCs via the mitochondrial pathway, as evidenced by the increase in cell viability, the enhancement of antioxidant enzyme activities, and the reduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, as well as stabilization of the mitochondrial membrane potential and the reduction of apoptosis rate. These results suggest that Potentilla anserina L. polysaccharides can serve as a promising natural antioxidant for applications in the field of functional foods.

Trilobatin regulates glucose metabolism by ameliorating oxidative stress and insulin resistance in vivo and in vitro

OBJECTIVES

Trilobatin, a glycosylated dihydrochalcone, has been reported to have anti-diabetic properties. However, the underlying mechanism remains unexplained.

METHODS

In this investigation, the regulation of trilobatin on glucose metabolism of insulin resistance (IR)-HepG2 cells and streptozocin (STZ)-induced mice and its mechanism were evaluated.

KEY FINDINGS

Different doses of trilobatin (5, 10 and 20 μM) increased glucose consumption, glycogen content, hexokinase (HK), and pyruvate kinase (PK) activity in IR-HepG2 cells. Among them, the HK and PK activity in IR-HepG2 cells treated with 20 μM trilobatin were 1.84 and 2.05 times than those of the IR-group. The overeating, body and tissue weight, insulin levels, liver damage, and lipid accumulation of STZ-induced mice were improved after feeding with different doses of trilobatin (10, 50, and 100 mg/kg/d) for 4 weeks. Compared with STZ-induced mice, fasting blood glucose decreased by 61.11% and fasting insulin (FINS) increased by 48.6% after feeding trilobatin (100 mg/kg/d). Meanwhile, data from quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) revealed trilobatin ameliorated glycogen synthesis via the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (Akt)/glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β) signaling pathway in IR-HepG2 cells and in STZ-induced mice. Furthermore, in vitro and in vivo experiments showed that trilobatin ameliorated oxidative stress by regulating the mRNA expression of nuclear erythroid-2 related factor 2 (Nrf2)/kelch-like ECH associated protein-1 (Keap-1) pathway as well as heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) and NAD(P)H: quinone oxidoreductase-1 (NQO-1).

CONCLUSIONS

Our research reveals a novel pharmacological activity of trilobatin: regulating glucose metabolism through PI3K/Akt/GSK-3β and Nrf2/Keap-1 signaling pathways, improving insulin resistance and reducing oxidative stress. Trilobatin can be used as a reliable drug resource for the treatment of glucose metabolism disorders.

Extraction, purification, structural characterization, biological activity, mechanism of action and application of polysaccharides from Ganoderma lucidum: A review

Ganoderma lucidum is a traditional tonic medicine in China, known as the "fairy grass" and "spiritual grass". It contains various chemical components, such as polysaccharides, triterpenoids, alkaloids, nucleosides, sterols, and acid compounds, which have the effects of tonifying qi and calming the mind, stopping cough and asthma, and are used to treat restlessness, lung deficiency cough and asthma, fatigue and shortness of breath, and lack of appetite. Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides (GLPs) are one of the main bioactive ingredients and are widely used in traditional Chinese medicine and traditional medicine fields. They have shown good medicinal value in enhancing immunity, inhibiting tumor cell growth, delaying aging, lowering blood sugar, lowering blood lipids, protecting the heart, anti-radiation, anti-fatigue, and other aspects. This article reviews the research progress on the extraction and purification, structural characteristics, pharmacological activity, and mechanisms of GLPs, as well as their applications in industries such as medicine, food, and daily chemical products. The aim is to provide theoretical basis for the treatment of traditional Chinese medicine compound preparations and lay the foundation for the potential value development of Ganoderma lucidum products.

Structure-Antioxidant Activity Relationship of Polysaccharides Isolated by Microwave/Ultrasonic-Assisted Extraction from Pleurotus ferulae

To investigate the structure-antioxidant activity relationship, Pleurotus ferulae polysaccharides were extracted using ultrasonic (U-PFPS) and microwave/ultrasonic-assisted methods (MU-PFPS). Compared to U-PFPS with a molecular weight of 1.566 × 103 kDa, MU-PFPS exhibited a lower molecular weight of 89.26 kDa. In addition, unlike U-PFPS, which is primarily composed of glucose (Glu:Man:Gal = 91.1:3.5:5.4), MU-PFPS has a more balanced composition of Glu:Man:Gal in the ratio of 39.4:27.8:32.8 and contains more branched chains. Furthermore, antioxidant analysis revealed that high concentration (at concentrations above 600 μg/mL) MU-PFPS demonstrated stronger protective effects against oxidative damage in RAW264.7 cells than U-PFPS did. Collectively, these data suggest that lower molecular weight and higher branching degree of polysaccharides at appropriate concentrations may correlate with enhanced antioxidant enzyme activities. Our work provides a method for isolating polysaccharides with higher antioxidant activity and offers insights into the structure-activity relationship of polysaccharides, laying the foundation for future applications in polysaccharide modification and structural characterization.

In vitro digestion and fecal fermentation behaviors of exopolysaccharide from Morchella esculenta and its impacts on hypoglycemic activity via PI3K/Akt signaling and gut microbiota modulation

This study aimed to evaluate the effects of gastrointestinal digestion on the physicochemical properties and hypoglycemic activity of extracellular polysaccharides from Morchella esculenta (MEPS). The results showed that the MEPS digestibility was 22.57 % after saliva-gastrointestinal digestion and only partial degradation had occurred. Contrarily, after 48 h of fecal fermentation, its molecular weight and molar ratios of the monosaccharide composition varied significantly due to being utilized by human gut microbiota, and the final fermentation rate was 76.89 %. Furthermore, the MEPS-I, the final product of saliva-gastrointestinal digestion still retained significant hypoglycemic activity, it alleviated insulin resistance and increased the IR cells glucose consumption by activating PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. MEPS-I treatment reduced the proportion of Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes, and the relative abundance of beneficial bacteria that enhanced insulin sensitivity and glucose uptake was promoted. This research can provide a theoretical basis for the further development of Morchella esculenta as a health functional food.

Hovenia dulcis (Guaizao) polysaccharide ameliorates hyperglycemia through multiple signaling pathways in rats with type 2 diabetes mellitus

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) poses a significant threat to human health, with its incidence and mortality rates increasing annually. This study investigated the hypoglycemic effects and underlying mechanisms of pure Hovenia dulcis (Guaizao) polysaccharide (HDPs-2A) in rats subjected to a high-fat and high-sugar diet combined with streptozotocin-induced T2DM. Oral administration of HDPs-2A resulted in significant increases in body weight and liver glycogen levels compared to untreated controls. Moreover, a reduction in fasting blood glucose levels, alleviation of hyperinsulinemia, enhanced glucose tolerance, and improved insulin resistance were observed in the HDPs-2A-treated group. HDPs-2A also effectively reversed diabetes-induced dyslipidemia, as evidenced by decreased total cholesterol and triglyceride levels, alongside increased high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels. Histopathological analyses confirmed that HDPs-2A partially repaired liver tissue damage by mitigating oxidative stress responses in the liver. Additionally, treatment with HDPs-2A significantly elevated short-chain fatty acid levels in T2DM rats. Real-time quantitative PCR and Western blot analyses indicated that HDPs-2A significantly enhanced the expression of InsR, IRS2, PI3K, Akt, and GLUT4, suggesting that HDPs-2A regulates insulin resistance and glycometabolism through the activation of the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway. Furthermore, HDPs-2A appeared to modulate the expression of GS, GSK-3β, and FoxO1 to improve glucose metabolism and reduce insulin resistance. It also improved glucose metabolism by activating the AMPK pathway and modulating G6Pase and PEPCK expression. This study provides novel insights into the antidiabetic effects of HDPs, positioning them as promising nutritional agents for the management of T2DM.

Optimization of extracellular polysaccharides (EPS) production by Stenotrophomonas rhizophila JC1 and its protective effect on alfalfa under Pb2+ stress

Stenotrophomonas rhizophila JC1 and its extracellular polysaccharides (EPS) have been shown to effectively adsorb heavy metals in previous studies. The fermentation conditions of EPS by S. rhizophila JC1 were optimized using the Box-Behnken design (BBD). The composition, structural characteristics, and heavy metal adsorption capacity of EPS were systematically evaluated. The alleviation mechanism of Pb2+ stress on alfalfa was investigated through EPS inoculation. The maximum EPS yield reached 0.313 %. EPS consisted of glucose, glucosamine, galactose, and mannose in a molar ratio of 12.20:1:22.29:1.68. EPS also contained four distinct polymers with molecular weights of 623,683.71 Da, 144,072.27 Da, 105,892.21 Da, and 51,094.79 Da. The adsorption processes conformed to the pseudo-second-order model and Langmuir isotherm model. High Pb2+ concentrations significantly reduced germination percentage, germinative force, root length, fresh weight, and soluble protein, inhibited photosynthesis, exacerbated oxidative stress, and caused damage to the antioxidant system, thereby inhibiting seedling growth. EPS at low concentrations can promote alfalfa seed germination and mitigate Pb2+ stress by reducing the aforementioned damage. This study highlights the potential of EPS in soil remediation and enhancing plant resistance to heavy metal stress.

Electrochemiluminescence assay for the impact of Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides on resisting arsenic-induced apoptosis

Ganoderma lucidum (G. lucidum) is a traditional edible fungus with strong medicinal value. G. lucidum polysaccharides (GLP) encapsulate many of the key beneficial properties of this species, providing a valuable tool for the treatment of a range of diseases. The present study was developed to explore the protective benefits of GLP treatment in the context of arsenic poisoning. Through microscopy and flow cytometry experiments, NaAsO2 was found to induce rat tracheal epithelial (RTE) cell apoptosis, together with reductions in cell surface epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) expression. GLP treatment, however, was able to reduce apoptosis rates and elevate the expression of EGFR relative to NaAsO2-treated cells. GLP extracts (50, 100, 200 mg·mL-1) prepared from four types of G. lucidum were administered to RTE cells damaged with arsenic, revealing limited differences in position resistance among these varieties. This work provides reference for the pharmaceutical and medical research of G. lucidum.

Hypoglycemic Effect of Polysaccharides from Physalis alkekengi L. in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Mice

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a common metabolic disease that adversely impacts patient health. In this study, a T2DM model was established in ICR mice through the administration of a high-sugar and high-fat diet combined with the intraperitoneal injection of streptozotocin to explore the hypoglycemic effect of polysaccharides from Physalis alkekengi L. After six weeks of treatment, the mice in the high-dosage group (800 mg/kg bw) displayed significant improvements in terms of fasting blood glucose concentration, glucose tolerance, serum insulin level, insulin resistance, and weight loss (p < 0.05). The polysaccharides also significantly regulated blood lipid levels by reducing the serum contents of total triglycerides, total cholesterol, and low-density lipoproteins and increasing the serum content of high-density lipoproteins (p < 0.05). Furthermore, they significantly enhanced the hepatic and pancreatic antioxidant capacities, as determined by measuring the catalase and superoxide dismutase activities and the total antioxidant capacity (p < 0.05). The results of immunohistochemistry showed that the P. alkekengi polysaccharides can increase the expression of GPR43 in mice colon epithelial cells, thereby promoting the secretion of glucagon-like peptide-1. In summary, P. alkekengi polysaccharides can help to regulate blood glucose levels in T2DM mice and alleviate the decline in the antioxidant capacities of the liver and pancreas, thus protecting these organs from damage.

Study on the mechanisms by which pumpkin polysaccharides regulate abnormal glucose and lipid metabolism in diabetic mice under oxidative stress

Pumpkin polysaccharide (PPe-H) can perform physiological functions through its antioxidative and hypoglycemic effects; however, the mechanisms through which PPe-H regulates abnormal glucose and lipid metabolism caused by oxidative stress injury remain unclear. In the present study, streptozotocin was used to generate an acute diabetic mouse model, and the effects of PPe-H on glucose and lipid metabolism impaired by oxidative stress in diabetic mice were studied. PPe-H significantly reduced blood glucose levels and enhanced the oral glucose tolerance of diabetic mice under stress injury (p < 0.05). The analysis of liver antioxidant enzymes showed that PPe-H significantly enhanced the activities of SOD and CAT (p < 0.05), increased the GSH level, and decreased the level of MDA (p < 0.05). Transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses of the liver tissues of mice revealed characteristic differences in the genetic and metabolic levels of the samples, which showed that PPe-H treatment may play a positive role in regulating the metabolism of methionine, cysteine, glycerol phospholipid, and linoleic acid. These results indicated that PPe-H alleviated the symptoms of hyperglycemia by regulating metabolites related to oxidative stress and glycolipid metabolism in diabetic mice.

Alleviation of hepatic insulin resistance and steatosis with NMN via improving endoplasmic reticulum-Mitochondria miscommunication in the liver of HFD mice

The interaction between endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondria has been shown to play a key role in hepatic steatosis during chronic obesity. β-nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN) has been reported to regulate obesity, however, its molecular mechanism at the subcellular level remains unclear. Here, NMN improved liver steatosis and insulin resistance in chronic high-fat diet (HFD) mice. RNA-seq showed that compared with the liver of HFD mice, NMN intervention enhanced fat digestion and absorption and stimulated the cholesterol metabolism signaling pathways, while impaired insulin resistance and the fatty acid biosynthesis signaling pathways. Mechanistically, NMN ameliorated mitochondrial dysfunction and ER oxidative stress in the liver of HFD mice by increasing hepatic nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) (P < 0.01) levels. This effect increased the contact sites (mitochondria-associated membranes [MAMs]) between ER and mitochondria, thereby promoting intracellular ATP (P < 0.05) production and mitigating lipid metabolic disturbances in the liver of HFD mice. Taken together, this study provided a theoretical basis for restoring metabolic dynamic equilibrium in the liver of HFD mice by increasing MAMs via the nutritional strategy of NMN supplementation.

Electrochemiluminescent evaluation of GLUT4 expression in rat adipocytes induced by Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides

Glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) directly facilitates cellular uptake of glucose and plays a crucial role in mammalian adipose tissue glucose metabolism. In this work, we constructed a cytosensor for sensitive electrochemiluminescence (ECL) detection of GLUT4 in rat adipocytes (RA cells). A carbon nanotube sponge (CNTSP) was selected to fabricate a permeable electrode to overcome the steric hindrance of cells on the electrode. The expression of GLUT4 after treatment with Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharide (GLP) was assessed by analyzing the luminescence emitted from cell-surface ECL probes. Our preliminary results suggest that GLP promote the expression of GLUT4, thereby enhancing the uptake of the fluorescent glucose 2-NBDG. Treatment with GLP affected GLUT4 expression in RA cells in a dose-dependent manner. Additionally, the ECL cytosensor contributes to the development of ECL imaging of receptors on the cell surface for clinical drug evaluation.

The synergism of Lactobacillaceae, inulin, polyglucose, and aerobic exercise ameliorates hyperglycemia by modulating the gut microbiota community and the metabolic profiles in db/db mice

This study aimed to assess the impact of Lactobacillaceae (L or H represents a low or high dose), inulin (I), and polydextrose (P) combined with aerobic exercise (A) on the composition of the gut microbiota and metabolic profiles in db/db mice. After a 12-week intervention, LIP, LIPA, and HIPA groups exhibited significant improvements in hyperglycemia, glucose tolerance, insulin resistance, inflammatory response, and short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) and blood lipid levels compared to type 2 diabetes mice (MC). After treatment, the gut microbiota composition shifted favorably in the treatment groups which significantly increased the abundance of beneficial bacteria, such as Bacteroides, Blautia, Akkermansia, and Faecalibaculum, and significantly decreased the abundance of Proteus. Metabolomics analysis showed that compared to the MC group, the contents of 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid, 3-hydroxysebacic acid, adenosine monophosphate (AMP), xanthine and hypoxanthine were significantly decreased, while 3-ketosphinganine, sphinganine, and sphingosine were significantly increased in the LIP and LIPA groups, respectively. Additionally, LIP and LIPA not only improved sphingolipid metabolism and purine metabolism pathways but also activated AMP-activated protein kinase to promote β-oxidation by increasing the levels of SCFAs. Faecalibaculum, Blautia, Bacteroides, and Akkermansia exhibited positive correlations with sphingosine, 3-ketosphinganine, and sphinganine, and exhibited negative correlations with hypoxanthine, xanthine and AMP. Faecalibaculum, Blautia, Bacteroides, and Akkermansia may have the potential to improve sphingolipid metabolism and purine metabolism pathways. These findings suggest that the synergism of Lactobacillaceae, inulin, polydextrose, and aerobic exercise provides a promising strategy for the prevention and management of type 2 diabetes.

Ganoderma lucidum: Multifaceted mechanisms to combat diabetes through polysaccharides and triterpenoids: A comprehensive review

Diabetes is a chronic metabolic disorder. Diabetes complications can affect many organs and systems in the body. Ganoderma lucidum (G. lucidum) contains various compounds that have been studied for their potential antidiabetic effects, including polysaccharides, triterpenoids (ganoderic acids, ganoderol B), proteoglycans, and G. lucidum extracts. G. lucidum polysaccharides (GLPs) and triterpenoids have been shown to act through distinct mechanisms, such as improving glucose metabolism, modulating the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) system, inhibiting the nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) pathway, and protecting the pancreatic beta cells. While GLPs exhibit a significant role in controlling diabetic nephropathy and other associated complications. This review states the G. lucidum antidiabetic mechanisms of action and potential biologically active compounds that contribute to diabetes management and associated complications. To make G. lucidum an appropriate replacement for the treatment of diabetes with fewer side effects, more study is required to completely comprehend the number of physiologically active compounds present in it as well as the underlying cellular mechanisms that influence their effects on diabetes.

Polysaccharides (pectin, mucilage, and fructan inulin) and their fermented products: A critical analysis of their biochemical, gut interactions, and biological functions as antidiabetic agents

Diabetes mellitus is a globally metabolic endocrine syndrome marked by a deficiency of insulin secretion (type-1 DM) or glucose intolerance arising from insulin response impairment (type-2 DM) leading to abnormal glucose metabolism. With an increasing interest in natural dietary components for diabetes management, the identification of novel agents witnessed major discoveries. Plant-derived mucilage, pectin, and inulin are important non-starch polysaccharides that exhibit effective antidiabetic properties often termed soluble dietary fiber (SDF). SDF affects sugar metabolism through multiple mechanisms affecting glucose absorption and diffusion, modulation of carbohydrate metabolizing enzymes (α-amylase and α-glucosidase), ameliorating β-pancreatic cell dysfunction, and improving insulin release or sensitivity. Certain SDFs inhibit dipeptidyl peptidase-4 and influence the expression levels of genes related to glucose metabolism. This review is designed to discuss holistically and critically the antidiabetic effects of major SDF and their underlying mechanisms of action. This review should aid drug discovery approaches in developing novel natural antidiabetic drugs from SDF.

The Synergism of Human Lactobacillaceae and Inulin Decrease Hyperglycemia via Regulating the Composition of Gut Microbiota and Metabolic Profiles in db/db Mice

This study aimed to evaluate the effects of Limosilactobacillus fermentum and Lactiplantibacillus plantarum isolated from human feces coordinating with inulin on the composition of gut microbiota and metabolic profiles in db/db mice. These supplements were administered to db/db mice for 12 weeks. The results showed that the Lactobacillaceae coordinating with inulin group (LI) exhibited lower fasting blood glucose levels than the model control group (MC). Additionally, LI was found to enhance colon tissue and increase the levels of short-chain fatty acids. 16S rRNA sequencing revealed that the abundance of Corynebacterium and Proteus, which were significantly increased in the MC group compared with NC group, were significantly decreased by the treatment of LI that also restored the key genera of the Lachnospiraceae_NK4A136_group, Lachnoclostridium, Ruminococcus_gnavus_group, Desulfovibrio, and Lachnospiraceae_UCG-006. Untargeted metabolomics analysis showed that lotaustralin, 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid, and 13(S)-HpODE were increased while L-phenylalanine and L-tryptophan were decreased in the MC group compared with the NC group. However, the intervention of LI reversed the levels of these metabolites in the intestine. Correlation analysis revealed that Lachnoclostridium and Ruminococcus_gnavus_group were negatively correlated with 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid and 13(S)-HpODE, but positively correlated with L-tryptophan. 13(S)-HpODE was involved in the "linoleic acid metabolism". L-tryptophan and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid were involved in "tryptophan metabolism" and "serotonergic synapse". These findings suggest that LI may alleviate type 2 diabetes symptoms by modulating the abundance of Ruminococcus_gnavus_group and Lachnoclostridium to regulate the pathways of "linoleic acid metabolism", "serotonergic synapse", and" tryptophan metabolism". Our results provide new insights into prevention and treatment of type 2 diabetes.

Regulatory Effects of Ganoderma lucidum, Grifola frondosa, and American ginseng Extract Formulation on Gut Microbiota and Fecal Metabolomics in Mice

The bioactivities of Ganoderma lucidum, Grifola frondosa, and American ginseng have been extensively studied and documented. However, the effects of their complexes on the structural properties of intestinal microbiota and fecal metabolism remain unclear. Therefore, this paper aims to present a preliminary study to shed light on this aspect. In this study, an immunocompromised mouse model was induced using cyclophosphamide, and Ganoderma lucidum, Grifola frondosa, and American ginseng extract formulation (referred to as JGGA) were administered via gavage to investigate their modulatory effects on gut microbiota and fecal metabolism in mice. The effects of JGGA on immune enhancement were explored using serum test kits, hematoxylin-eosin staining, 16SrDNA high-throughput sequencing, and UHPLC-QE-MS metabolomics. The findings revealed potential mechanisms underlying the immune-enhancing effects of JGGA. Specifically, JGGA administration resulted in an improved body weight, thymic index, splenic index, carbon scavenging ability, hypersensitivity, and cellular inflammatory factor expression levels in mice. Further analysis demonstrated that JGGA reduced the abundance of Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, and Actinobacteria, while increasing the abundance of Bacteroidetes. Additionally, JGGA modulated the levels of 30 fecal metabolites. These results suggest that the immune enhancement observed with JGGA may be attributed to the targeted modulation of gut microbiota and fecal metabolism, thus promoting increased immunity in the body.

Polysaccharides from natural resource: ameliorate type 2 diabetes mellitus via regulation of oxidative stress network

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a group of metabolic diseases characterized by hyperglycemia that can occur in children, adults, elderly people, and pregnant women. Oxidative stress is a significant adverse factor in the pathogenesis of DM, especially type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), and metabolic syndrome. Natural polysaccharides are macromolecular compounds widely distributed in nature. Some polysaccharides derived from edible plants and microorganisms were reported as early as 10 years ago. However, the structural characterization of polysaccharides and their therapeutic mechanisms in diabetes are relatively shallow, limiting the application of polysaccharides. With further research, more natural polysaccharides have been reported to have antioxidant activity and therapeutic effects in diabetes, including plant polysaccharides, microbial polysaccharides, and polysaccharides from marine organisms and animals. Therefore, this paper summarizes the natural polysaccharides that have therapeutic potential for diabetes in the past 5 years, elucidating their pharmacological mechanisms and identified primary structures. It is expected to provide some reference for the application of polysaccharides, and provide a valuable resource for the development of new diabetic drugs.

Structure characterization and biological activities evaluation of two hetero-polysaccharides from Lepista nuda: Cell antioxidant, anticancer and immune-modulatory activities

Polysaccharides LNP-1 and LNP-2 were extracted and purified from Lepista nuda, and their structural characteristics and biological activities were evaluated. The molecular weights of LNP-1 and LNP-2 were determined to be 16,263 Da and 17,730 Da, respectively. The monosaccharide composition analysis showed that LNP-1 and LNP-2 were composed of fucose, mannose, glucose, and galactose in a molar ratio of 1.00:2.42:1.09:4.04 and 1.00:2.39:1.61:4.23, respectively. The structure analysis revealed that these two polysaccharides were mainly composed of T-Fuc, T-Man, T-Glc, 1,6-Glc 1,6-Gal, and 1,2,6-Man, 1,2,6-Gal. Additionally, LNP-2 contained an additional 1,4-Glc glycosidic linkage in comparison to LNP-1. Both LNP-1 and LNP-2 exhibited anti-proliferation effects on A375 cells, but not on HepG2 cells. Furthermore, LNP-2 showed better cellular antioxidant activity (CAA) than LNP-1. RT-PCR results indicated that LNP-1 and LNP-2 could induce macrophages to secrete immune-modulatory factors NO, IL-6, and TNF-α by regulating their mRNA expression. Overall, this study provides a theoretical basis for the further development of the structure-function relationship of polysaccharides from L. nuda.

Antidiabetic activity of Armillaria mellea polysaccharides: Joint ultrasonic and enzyme assisted extraction

Armillaria mellea polysaccharides (AMPs) were obtained by ultrasonic assisted extraction (U), enzyme assisted extraction (E) and ultrasonic-enzyme assisted extraction (UE), respectively. The yield of UE-AMPs (6.32 ± 0.14%) was 1.64 times higher than that of U-AMPs (3.86 ± 0.11%) and 1.21 times higher than that of E-AMPs (5.21 ± 0.09%); meanwhile, the highest total sugar content and the lowest protein content were found in UE-AMPs. AMPs obtained from the three extraction methods had the same monosaccharide composition but in different proportions, allowing UE-AMPs to have the most potent antioxidant activity. The antidiabetic activity of UE-AMPs was investigated in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic mice. UE-AMPs, when given by gavage, greatly prevented weight loss, increased water intake, and considerably decreased blood glucose levels in diabetic mice, which were dose-dependent (P < 0.05). In addition, UE-AMPs also had a positive effect on the reduction of lipid levels in the blood, oxidative damage and liver function impairment. The pathological observation by hematoxylin-eosin staining (HE) revealed that UE-AMPs protected the organs of mice from diabetic complications (liver disease and nephropathy). Hence, our findings demonstrate that UE-AMPs are a suitable choice for improving diabetes and its complications and have great application prospects in the fields of natural medicine and functional food.

Current progress in the hypoglycemic mechanisms of natural polysaccharides

Unhealthy dietary pattern-induced type 2 diabetes mellitus poses a great threat to human health all over the world. Accumulating evidence has revealed that the pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes mellitus is closely associated with the dysregulation of glucose metabolism and energy metabolism, serious oxidative stress, prolonged endoplasmic reticulum stress, metabolic inflammation and intestinal microbial dysbiosis. Most important of all, insulin resistance and insulin deficiency are two key factors inducing type 2 diabetes mellitus. Nowadays, natural polysaccharides have gained increasing attention owing to their numerous health-promoting functions, such as hypoglycemic, energy-regulating, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and prebiotic activities. Therefore, natural polysaccharides have been used to alleviate diet-induced type 2 diabetes mellitus. Specifically, this review comprehensively summarizes the underlying hypoglycemic mechanisms of natural polysaccharides and provides a theoretical basis for the development of functional foods. For the first time, this review elucidates hypoglycemic mechanisms of natural polysaccharides from the perspectives of their regulatory effects on glucose metabolism, insulin resistance and mitochondrial dysfunction.

Antidiabetic Properties of Plant Secondary Metabolites

The prevalence of diabetes mellitus is one of the major medical problems that the modern world is currently facing. Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes mellitus both result in early disability and death, as well as serious social and financial problems. In some cases, synthetic drugs can be quite effective in the treatment of diabetes, though they have side effects. Plant-derived pharmacological substances are of particular interest. This review aims to study the antidiabetic properties of secondary plant metabolites. Existing review and research articles on the investigation of the antidiabetic properties of secondary plant metabolites, the methods of their isolation, and their use in diabetes mellitus, as well as separate articles that confirm the relevance of the topic and expand the understanding of the properties and mechanisms of action of plant metabolites, were analyzed for this review. The structure and properties of plants used for the treatment of diabetes mellitus, including plant antioxidants, polysaccharides, alkaloids, and insulin-like plant substances, as well as their antidiabetic properties and mechanisms for lowering blood sugar, are presented. The main advantages and disadvantages of using phytocomponents to treat diabetes are outlined. The types of complications of diabetes mellitus and the effects of medicinal plants and their phytocomponents on them are described. The effects of phytopreparations used to treat diabetes mellitus on the human gut microbiota are discussed. Plants with a general tonic effect, plants containing insulin-like substances, plants-purifiers, and plants rich in vitamins, organic acids, etc. have been shown to play an important role in the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus and the prevention of its complications.

Exploring Edible Mushrooms for Diabetes: Unveiling Their Role in Prevention and Treatment

Diabetes mellitus is a complex illness in which the body does not create enough insulin to control blood glucose levels. Worldwide, this disease is life-threatening and requires low-cost, side-effect-free medicine. Due to adverse effects, many synthetic hypoglycemic medications for diabetes fail. Mushrooms are known to contain natural bioactive components that may be anti-diabetic; thus, scientists are now targeting them. Mushroom extracts, which improve immune function and fight cancer, are becoming more popular. Mushroom-derived functional foods and dietary supplements can delay the onset of potentially fatal diseases and help treat pre-existing conditions, which leads to the successful prevention and treatment of type 2 diabetes, which is restricted to the breakdown of complex polysaccharides by pancreatic-amylase and the suppression of intestinal-glucosidase. Many mushroom species are particularly helpful in lowering blood glucose levels and alleviating diabetes symptoms. Hypoglycaemic effects have been observed in investigations on Agaricussu brufescens, Agaricus bisporus, Cordyceps sinensis, Inonotus obliqus, Coprinus comatus, Ganoderma lucidum, Phellinus linteus, Pleurotus spp., Poria cocos, and Sparassis crispa. For diabetics, edible mushrooms are high in protein, vitamins, and minerals and low in fat and cholesterol. The study found that bioactive metabolites isolated from mushrooms, such as polysaccharides, proteins, dietary fibers, and many pharmacologically active compounds, as well as solvent extracts of mushrooms with unknown metabolites, have anti-diabetic potential in vivo and in vitro, though few are in clinical trials.

Inulin: properties and health benefits

Inulin, a soluble dietary fiber, is widely found in more than 36 000 plant species as a reserve polysaccharide. The primary sources of inulin, include Jerusalem artichoke, chicory, onion, garlic, barley, and dahlia, among which Jerusalem artichoke tubers and chicory roots are often used as raw materials for inulin production in the food industry. It is universally acknowledged that inulin as a prebiotic has an outstanding effect on the regulation of intestinal microbiota via stimulating the growth of beneficial bacteria. In addition, inulin also exhibits excellent health benefits in regulating lipid metabolism, weight loss, lowering blood sugar, inhibiting the expression of inflammatory factors, reducing the risk of colon cancer, enhancing mineral absorption, improving constipation, and relieving depression. In this review paper, we attempt to present an exhaustive overview of the function and health benefits of inulin.

Bioactive Compounds from Medicinal Mushrooms

Research progress of active compounds and biological activities of medicinal mushroom-Ganoderma spp., Hericium spp., Phellinus spp., and Cordyceps spp. were summarized systematically. The main active compounds of medicinal mushrooms included are polysaccharides, proteins, triterpenes, meroterpenoids, polyphenols and nitrogen-containing compounds. The biological activities of the compounds cover immunomodulatory activity, antitumor activity, hypoglycemic activity, hepatoprotective activity, and activity of regulation of intellectual flora.

Inulin and Chinese Gallotannin Affect Meat Quality and Lipid Metabolism on Hu Sheep

The aim of this study was to investigate the impacts of inulin and Chinese gallotannin on the meat fatty acids and urinary metabolites in sheep. Twenty-four healthy (25.80 ± 3.85 kg) weaned Hu lambs of approximately 4.5 months old were equally divided into four groups: control group (basal diet), treatment group I (basal diet + 0.1% inulin), treatment group II (basal diet + 0.1% inulin + 2% Chinese gallotannin), and treatment group III (basal diet + 0.1% inulin + 2% Chinese gallotannin + 4% PEG). The contents of myristic acid (C14:0) and palmitic acid (C16:0) were found to be lower in treatment group II than in the control group (p < 0.05). Moreover, the palmitoleic acid (C16:1) content in treatment group II was notably higher than that in the control group (p < 0.05), while the elaidic acid (C18:1n9t) content in treatment group II was higher than that in other groups (p < 0.05). Besides, the linoleic acid (C18:2n6c) content was higher in the treatment II and control groups than in the treatment I and III groups. Furthermore, compared with the control group, both 4-pyridoxic acid and creatinine in treatment groups I and II were upregulated (p < 0.05), while other metabolites, such as nicotinuric acid, l-threonine, palmitic acid, and oleic acid, were drastically downregulated (p < 0.05). These differential metabolites were found to be mainly involved in nicotinate and nicotinamide metabolism (ko00760), vitamin B6 metabolism (ko00750), and the fatty acid biosynthesis pathway (ko00061). It is concluded that the combination of inulin and Chinese gallotannin in the diet could improve the energy and lipid metabolism of sheep, which may improve both mutton quality and production performance.

Mushroom polysaccharides with potential in anti-diabetes: Biological mechanisms, extraction, and future perspectives: A review

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a global health threat. Searching for anti-diabetic components from natural resources is of intense interest to scientists. Mushroom polysaccharides have received growing attention in anti-diabetes fields due to their advantages in broad resources, structure diversity, and multiple bioactivities, which are considered an unlimited source of healthy active components potentially applied in functional foods and nutraceuticals. In this review, the current knowledge about the roles of oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of DM, the extraction method of mushroom polysaccharides, and their potential biological mechanisms associated with anti-diabetes, including antioxidant, hypolipidemic, anti-inflammatory, and gut microbiota modulatory actions, were summarized based on a variety of in vitro and in vivo studies, with aiming at better understanding the roles of mushroom polysaccharides in the prevention and management of DM and its complications. Finally, future perspectives including bridging the gap between the intervention of mushroom polysaccharides and the modulation of insulin signaling pathway, revealing structure-bioactivity of mushroom polysaccharides, developing synergistic foods, conducting well-controlled clinical trials that may be very helpful in discovering valuable mushroom polysaccharides and better applications of mushroom polysaccharides in diabetic control were proposed.

Therapeutic potential of non-starch polysaccharides on type 2 diabetes: from hypoglycemic mechanism to clinical trials

Non-starch polysaccharides (NSPs) have been reported to exert therapeutic potential on managing type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Various mechanisms have been proposed; however, several studies have not considered the correlations between the anti-T2DM activity of NSPs and their molecular structure. Moreover, the current understanding of the role of NSPs in T2DM treatment is mainly based on in vitro and in vivo data, and more human clinical trials are required to verify the actual efficacy in treating T2DM. The related anti-T2DM mechanisms of NSPs, including regulating insulin action, promoting glucose metabolism and regulating postprandial blood glucose level, anti-inflammatory and regulating gut microbiota (GM), are reviewed. The structure-function relationships are summarized, and the relationships between NSPs structure and anti-T2DM activity from clinical trials are highlighted. The development of anti-T2DM medication or dietary supplements of NSPs could be promoted with an in-depth understanding of the multiple regulatory effects in the treatment/intervention of T2DM.

A Novel Polysaccharide From Heimioporus retisporus Displays Hypoglycemic Activity in a Diabetic Mouse Model

A novel polysaccharide, Heimioporus retisporus Polysaccharide (HRP) was extracted from the edible mushroom Heimioporus retisporus. HRP had weight-average molecular weight 1,949 kDa and number-average molecular weight 873 kDa, and its major components were arabinose (0.71%), galactose (12.93%), glucose (49.00%), xylose (8.59%), mannose (17.78%), and glucuronic acid (10.99%). Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy revealed that HRP was composed of 1,3-linked β-D-glucose, 1,6-linked β-D-mannose, 1,6-linked β-D-galactose, 1,4-linked β-D-galactose, 1,4-linked β-D-xylose, and 1,5-linked α-L-arabinose. Thermogravimetric analysis indicated that degradation temperature (T₀) of HRP was 200°C. In an STZ-induced diabetic mouse model, oral administration of HRP (40 mg/kg/d) for 28 days significantly reduced blood glucose levels, and reduced heart organ index by decreasing expression of IL-6 and TNF-α. Our findings indicate hypoglycemic effect of HRP, and its potential application as a hypoglycemic agent.

Black bean husk and black rice anthocyanin extracts modulated gut microbiota and serum metabolites for improvement in type 2 diabetic rats

Black rice and black bean have not yet been fully investigated as healthy foods for their therapeutic effects on type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). In this study, we aimed to evaluate the antidiabetic effects of black rice, black bean husk anthocyanin extracts, and their combination on glycolipid metabolism, gut microbiota, and serum metabolites in T2DM rats. Black bean husk and black rice anthocyanin extracts were administered to T2DM rats by gavage for 4 weeks. The results showed that black rice and black bean husk anthocyanin extracts significantly improved blood glucose, insulin resistance, serum oxidative stress state, lipid metabolism and inflammatory cytokines levels in rats, and alleviated liver damage. Black rice and black bean husk anthocyanin extracts increased the abundance of short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) producing bacteria Akkermansia spp., Phascolarctobacterium spp., Bacteroides spp., and Coprococcus spp., changed the gut microbiota structure; activated AMPK, PI3K, and AKT; inhibited HMGCR, G6pase and PEPCK expression; and inhibited hepatic gluconeogenesis. Moreover, by adjusting the levels of urea, deoxycytidine, L-citrulline, pseudouridine, and other serum metabolites in T2DM rats, the arginine biosynthesis and pyrimidine metabolism pathways were downregulated. The above results indicated that black rice and black bean husk anthocyanin extracts had a significant impact on the development of T2DM.

The Antioxidant Properties of Mushroom Polysaccharides can Potentially Mitigate Oxidative Stress, Beta-Cell Dysfunction and Insulin Resistance

Diabetes mellitus is a prevalent metabolic and endocrine illness affecting people all over the world and is of serious health and financial concern. Antidiabetic medicine delivered through pharmacotherapy, including synthetic antidiabetic drugs, are known to have several negative effects. Fortunately, several natural polysaccharides have antidiabetic properties, and the use of these polysaccharides as adjuncts to conventional therapy is becoming more common, particularly in underdeveloped nations. Oxidative stress has a critical role in the development of diabetes mellitus (DM). The review of current literature presented here focusses, therefore, on the antioxidant properties of mushroom polysaccharides used in the management of diabetic complications, and discusses whether these antioxidant properties contribute to the deactivation of the oxidative stress-related signalling pathways, and to the amelioration of β-cell dysfunction and insulin resistance. In this study, we conducted a systematic review of the relevant information concerning the antioxidant and antidiabetic effects of mushrooms from electronic databases, such as PubMed, Scopus or Google Scholar, for the period 1994 to 2021. In total, 104 different polysaccharides from mushrooms have been found to have antidiabetic effects. Most of the literature on mushroom polysaccharides has demonstrated the beneficial effects of these polysaccharides on reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS) levels. This review discuss the effects of these polysaccharides on hyperglycemia and other alternative antioxidant therapies for diabetic complications through their applications and limits, in order to gain a better understanding of how they can be used to treat DM. Preclinical and phytochemical investigations have found that most of the active polysaccharides extracted from mushrooms have antioxidant activity, reducing oxidative stress and preventing the development of DM. Further research is necessary to confirm whether mushroom polysaccharides can effectively alleviate hyperglycemia, and the mechanisms by which they do this, and to investigate whether these polysaccharides might be utilized as a complementary therapy for the prevention and management of DM in the future.

The Pharmacological Rationales and Molecular Mechanisms of Ganoderma lucidum Polysaccharides for the Therapeutic Applications of Multiple Diseases

As a versatile Chinese herb, Ganoderma lucidum (Leyss. ex Fr.) Karst (G. lucidum) has been applied to treat multiple diseases in clinics and improve the quality of life of patients. Among all of its extracts, the main bioactive components are G. lucidum polysaccharides (GLPs), which possess many therapeutic effects, such as antitumor, immunoregulatory, anti-oxidant, antidiabetic, antibacterial, and antifungal effects and neuroprotection activities. This review briefly summarized the recent studies of the pharmacological rationales of GLPs and their underlying molecular signaling transmission mechanisms in treating diseases. Until now, the clear mechanisms of GLPs for treating diseases have not been reported. In this review, we used the keywords of "Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides" and "tumor" to search in PubMed (years of 1992-2020), then screened and obtained 160 targets of antitumor activities in the literatures. The network pharmacology and mechanism framework were employed in this study as powerful approaches to systematically analyze the complicated potential antitumor mechanisms and targets of GLPs in cancer. We then found that there are 69 targets and 21 network pathways in "Pathways in cancer". Besides, we summarized the effects of GLPs and the models and methods used in the research of GLPs. In conclusion, GLPs have been studied extensively, but more in-depth research is still needed to determine the exact mechanisms and pathways. Therefore, this review might provide new insights into the vital targets and pathways for researchers to study the pharmacological mechanisms of GLPs for the treatment of diseases.

The Efficacy of Ganoderma lucidum in Overweight Individuals: A Randomized Placebo-controlled trial

BACKGROUND: There are growing interests in the use of medicinal mushrooms in controlling overweight and obesity. OBJECTIVE: The aim of the present study was to assess the effect of Lingzhi on anthropometric indices, fasting blood sugar, lipid profile and blood pressure of overweight individuals METHODS: This randomized double-blind clinical trial was performed on seventy-two overweight individuals (Body Mass Index (BMI) = 25–29.9 kg/m2) received 3 capsule Ganoderma Lucidum (each capsule containing 220 mg of whole powder and 30 mg of pure aqueous extract) daily or matching placebo for 6 weeks. Anthropometric indices, metabolic tests (fasting blood sugar (FBS) and serum lipid profile) and blood pressure were measured before and after treatment. RESULTS: Data analyses indicated that body weight and BMI were decreased after 6-week intervention (P <  0.05). The beneficial effect of supplementation was evident on some anthropometric indices. Changes in LDL-cholesterol were significantly different between two treatment and placebo groups (P <  0.05). FBS, other components of lipid profile and blood pressure did not significantly change by Lingzi treatment. CONCLUSIONS: Results showed that Ganoderma Lucidum might have some potential benefits on anthropometric indices and mild effects on lipid profile, but and there is no claim for weight lose function. Hence, further long-term studies are recommended.

Polysaccharides from Basidiocarps of the Polypore Fungus Ganoderma resinaceum: Isolation and Structure

In this study, we focused on the isolation and structural characterization of polysaccharides from a basidiocarp of polypore fungus Ganoderma resinaceum. Polysaccharide fractions were obtained by successive extractions with cold water at room temperature (20 °C), hot water under reflux (100 °C), and a solution of 1 mol L-1 sodium hydroxide. The purity of all fractions was controlled mainly by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and their composition and structure were characterized by organic elemental analysis; neutral sugar and methylation analyses by gas chromatography equipped with flame ionization detector (GC/FID) and mass spectrometry detector (GC/MS), respectively; and by correlation nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. The aqueous extracts contained two main polysaccharides identified as a branched O-2-β-d-mannosyl-(1→6)-α-d-galactan and a highly branched (1→3)(1→4)(1→6)-β-d-glucan. Mannogalactan predominated in the cold water extract, and β-d-glucan was the main product of the hot water extract. The hot water soluble fraction was further separated by preparative anion exchange chromatography into three sub-fractions; two of them were identified as branched β-d-glucans with a structure similar to the corresponding polysaccharide of the original fraction. The alkaline extract contained a linear (1→3)-α-d-glucan and a weakly branched (1→3)-β-d-glucan having terminal β-d-glucosyl residues attached to O-6 of the backbone. The insoluble part after all extractions was identified as a polysaccharide complex containing chitin and β-d-glucans.

Jerusalem artichoke inulin supplementation ameliorates hepatic lipid metabolism in type 2 diabetes mellitus mice by modulating the gut microbiota and fecal metabolome

The main focus of this study was on the protection mechanism of Jerusalem artichoke inulin (DI) against type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) associated with abnormal hepatic lipid metabolism and gut microbiota dysfunction in T2DM mice.

The impact of a novel Chinese yam-derived polysaccharide on blood glucose control in HFD and STZ-induced diabetic C57BL/6 mice

Chinese yam, as a kind of traditional “medicine and food homologous food” in Asia, could assistance to digestion, nourish the lungs and relieve cough. Some research also suggested that Chinese...

Structural characteristics, anti-proliferative and immunomodulatory activities of a purified polysaccharide from Lactarius volemus Fr

Lactarius volemus Fr. is an edible mushroom widely consumed in China. Polysaccharide is an important nutritional component of L. volemus. This research aimed to isolate the polysaccharide from L. volemus and study its structure and bioactivities. A purified polysaccharide was identified and named as LVF-I whose primary structure was proposed considering the comprehensive results of monosaccharide composition, periodate oxidation-smith degradation, methylation analysis, FT-IR and 1D/2D NMR spectroscopy. Then the immunomodulation of LVF-I and its inhibition effect on H1299 and MCF-7 cells were investigated. Results showed that LVF-I (12,894 Da) contained fucose, mannose, glucose and galactose. It had a backbone consisting of →4)-α-D-Glcp-(1→, →6)-β-D-Manp-(1→, →6)-α-D-Galp-(1 → and →4)-β-D-Manp-(1→. And its side chains were branched at C2 of →4)-β-D-Manp-(1 → by →6)-α-D-Galp-(1→, α-D-Glcp-(1→, α-D-Galp-(1 → and α-L-Fucp-(1→. LVF-I (250-1000 μg/mL) could inhibit the proliferation of H1299 and MCF-7 cells, while enhance the proliferative response of splenocyte and the phagocytic ability of RAW264.7. Furthermore, LVF-I (250-1000 μg/mL) significantly induced the secretion of nitric oxide, interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) by up-regulating their mRNA expression in macrophages. These results suggested that LVF-I had the potential to be developed as antitumor or immunomodulatory agents by inhibiting the proliferation of tumor cells and stimulating macrophages-mediated immune responses.

Characteristics and antifatigue activity of graded polysaccharides from Ganoderma lucidum separated by cascade membrane technology

In this paper, cascade membrane technology was utilized to classify polysaccharides from Ganoderma lucidum (GLPs). The properties and antifatigue activity of graded polysaccharides were identified and compared. GLPs were separated using cascade ultrafiltration membranes of 100 kDa, 10 kDa and 1 kDa in sequence. The molecular weights of polysaccharides in these GLP fractions were approximately 322.0 kDa, 18.8 kDa and 6.4 kDa, and all polysaccharides were in active β-configurations. This showed that all graded GLPs could elongate swimming time, improve endurance and promote fatigue recovery, especially polysaccharides with molecular weights above 10 kDa. This demonstrated that GLPs could decrease the activities of SUN and CK and the levels of MDA and BLA. They also increased the level of Gly, accelerated fat transformation, and improved the activities of GPx, SOD and LDH in all treated mice. Accordingly, GLPs above 10 kDa might be potential agents with antifatigue activity.

Ganoderma lucidum (Reishi) an edible mushroom; a comprehensive and critical review of its nutritional, cosmeceutical, mycochemical, pharmacological, clinical, and toxicological properties

Reishi owes an exceptional value in nutritional, cosmeceutical, and medical treatments; however, none of the studies has provided its future-driven critical assessment. This study documents an up-to-date review (2015-2020, wherever applicable) and provide valuable insights (preclinical and clinical evidence-based) with comprehensive and critical assessments. Various databases 'Google scholar', 'Web of Science', 'ScienceDirect', 'PubMed', 'Springer Link', books, theses, and library resources were used. The taxonomic chaos of G. lucidum and its related species was discussed in detail with solution-oriented emphasis. Reishi contains polysaccharides (α/β-D-glucans), alkaloids, triterpenoids (ganoderic acids, ganoderenic acids, ganoderol, ganoderiol, lucidenic acids), sterols/ergosterol, proteins (LZ-8, LZ-9), nucleosides (adenosine, inosine, uridine), and nucleotides (guanine, adenine). Some active drugs are explored at an optimum level to make them potential drug candidates. The pharmacological potential was observed in diabetes, inflammation, epilepsy, neurodegeneration, cancer, anxiety, sedation, cardiac diseases, depression, hepatic diseases, and immune disorders; however, most of the studies are preclinical with a number of drawbacks. In particular, quality clinical data are intensely needed to support pharmacological activities for human use. The presence of numerous micro-, macro, and trace elements imparts an essential nutritional and cosmeceutical value to Reishi, and various marketed products are available already, but the clinical studies regarding safety and efficacy, interactions with foods/drinks, chronic use, teratogenicity, mutagenicity, and genotoxicity are missing for Reishi. Reishi possesses many valuable pharmacological activities, and the number of patents and clinical trials is increasing for Reishi. Yet, a gap in research exists for Reishi, which is discussed in detail in the forthcoming sections.

Ganoderma lucidum: A potential source to surmount viral infections through β-glucans immunomodulatory and triterpenoids antiviral properties

Ganoderma lucidum (G. lucidum) polysaccharides and triterpenoids are the major bioactive compounds and have been used as traditional medicine for ancient times. Massive demands of G. lucidum have fascinated the researchers towards its application as functional food, nutraceutical and modern medicine owing to wide range of application in various diseases include immunomodulators, anticancer, antiviral, antioxidant, cardioprotective, hepatoprotective. G. lucidum polysaccharides exhibit immunomodulatory properties through boosting the action of antigen-presenting cells, mononuclear phagocyte system, along with humoral and cellular immunity. β-Glucans isolated from G. lucidum are anticipated to produce an immune response through pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). β-Glucans after binding with dectin-1 receptor present on different cells include macrophages, monocytes, dendritic cells and neutrophils produce signal transduction that lead to trigger the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), T cells and Nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) that refer to cytokines production and contributing to immune response. While triterpenoids produce antiviral effects through inhibiting various enzymes like neuraminidase, HIV-protease, DENV2 NS2B-NS3 protease and HSV multiplication. Polysaccharides and triterpenoids adjunct to other drugs exhibit potential action in prevention and treatment of various diseases. Immunomodulators and antiviral properties of this mushroom could be a potential source to overcome this current pandemic outbreak.

Antidiabetic activities of glycoprotein from pea (Pisum sativum L.) in STZ-induced diabetic mice

Polysaccharides have hypoglycemic activity and pea protein has high nutritional value. The purified pea glycoprotein PGP2 has been shown to inhibit the activity of α-glucosidase and α-amylase in previous studies. To study the mechanism of PGP2-induced blood glucose lowering in vivo, this paper established a diabetic mouse model by intraperitoneal injection of STZ and high-fat diet, and evaluated the blood-glucose-lowering activity of the pea component PGP2 at different doses. The results showed that intragastric administration of PGP2 could effectively reduce diabetic weight loss and polyphagia symptoms, reduce fasting blood glucose levels in mice, and improve oral glucose tolerance levels in mice. PGP2 could promote insulin secretion and had a protective effect on mouse organs. After intragastric administration of PGP2 in mice, the serum levels of total cholesterol, triglycerides and low-density lipoprotein decreased. PGP2 up-regulated the gene expression of insulin receptor substrates IRS-1 and IRS-2 in liver tissues, thereby reducing insulin resistance. Based on the above experimental results, PGP2 had good hypoglycemic activity and was expected to be developed as a natural medicine for the treatment of type II diabetes.

Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.) leaf polyphenols ameliorate hyperglycemia in type 2 diabetes mellitus mice

The hypoglycemic effects and potential mechanism of sweet potato leaf polyphenols (SPLP) on type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) were investigated. Results showed that oral administration of SPLP to mice could alleviate body weight loss, decrease fasting blood glucose levels (by 64.78%) and improve oral glucose tolerance compared with those of untreated diabetic mice. Furthermore, increased fasting serum insulin levels (by 100.11%), ameliorated insulin resistance and improved hepatic glycogen (by 126.78%) and muscle glycogen (increased by 135.85%) were observed in the SPLP treatment group. SPLP also could reverse dyslipidemia, as indicated by decreased total cholesterol, triglycerides, low density lipoprotein-cholesterol and promoted high density lipoprotein-cholesterol. Histopathological analysis revealed that SPLP could relieve liver inflammation and maintain the islet structure to inhibit β-cell apoptosis. A quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction confirmed that SPLP could up-regulate the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/protein kinase B/glycogen synthase kinase-3β signaling pathway to improve glucose metabolism and up-regulate the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/protein kinase B/glucose transporter 4 signaling pathway in the skeletal muscle to enhance glucose transport. This study provides useful information to support the application of SPLP as a natural product for the treatment of T2DM.

Macrofungi as a Nutraceutical Source: Promising Bioactive Compounds and Market Value

Macrofungi production and economic value have been increasing globally. The demand for macrofungi has expanded rapidly owing to their popularity among consumers, pleasant taste, and unique flavors. The presence of high quality proteins, polysaccharides, unsaturated fatty acids, minerals, triterpene sterols, and secondary metabolites makes macrofungi an important commodity. Macrofungi are well known for their ability to protect from or cure various health problems, such as immunodeficiency, cancer, inflammation, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, hypercholesterolemia, and obesity. Many studies have demonstrated their medicinal properties, supported by both in vivo and in vitro experimental studies, as well as clinical trials. Numerous bioactive compounds isolated from mushrooms, such as polysaccharides, proteins, fats, phenolic compounds, and vitamins, possess strong bioactivities. Consequently, they can be considered as an important source of nutraceuticals. Numerous edible mushrooms have been studied for their bioactivities, but only a few species have made it to the market. Many species remain to be explored. The converging trends and popularity of eastern herbal medicines, natural/organic food product preference, gut-healthy products, and positive outlook towards sports nutrition are supporting the growth in the medicinal mushroom market. The consumption of medicinal mushrooms as functional food or dietary supplement is expected to markedly increase in the future. The global medicinal mushroom market size is projected to increase by USD 13.88 billion from 2018 to 2022. The global market values of promising bioactive compounds, such as lentinan and lovastatin, are also expected to rise. With such a market growth, mushroom nutraceuticals hold to be very promising in the years to come.