Neural crest stem cells and their potential therapeutic applications

Mesenchymal stem cells derived from hPSC via neural crest attenuate chemotherapy-induced premature ovarian insufficiency by ameliorating apoptosis and oxidative stress in granulosa cells

BACKGROUND

Premature ovarian insufficiency (POI) poses a significant threat to female reproductive health and currently lacks effective interventions. Recent studies highlight the promising potential of human pluripotent stem cell-derived mesenchymal stem cells (hPSC-MSC) in regenerative medicine. However, research on hPSC-MSC-based treatments for POI remains limited, particularly in the characterization of the intermediate differentiation stages from hPSC to MSC. This study presents an accelerated differentiation protocol for generating hPSC-MSC via neural crest cells (NCC) and evaluates their therapeutic potential in chemotherapy-induced POI.

METHODS

We modified a canonical small molecule-mediated protocol for hPSC-NCC-MSC differentiation. Systematic characterization of differentiated-cells was performed using qPCR, immunofluorescence, cell viability assays, flow cytometry and trilineage differentiation. In vivo, hPSC-NCC-MSC were transplanted into chemotherapy-induced POI SD rat models, and parameters such as body weight, ovarian weight, estrous cycle, hormone levels, follicle count, and mating were assessed. Granulosa cells (GC) apoptosis was analyzed using TUNEL assay and immunohistochemistry. In vitro, their effects on apoptosis inhibition and oxidative stress alleviation were investigated in a cultured GC cell line. Additionally, comparisons between umbilical cord MSC (UC-MSC) and hPSC-NCC-MSC in chemotherapy-induced POI was conducted.

RESULTS

Our optimized protocol, combining CHIR99021 and SB431542, efficiently induced NCC from both human embryonic stem cells (hESC) and human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSC). The programmed hPSC-NCC-MSC, characterized by specific NCC markers (P75, HNK1, SOX10, and AP2α), exhibited typical MSC morphology, trilineage differentiation potential, favorable cell viability, and prominent anti-senescence properties. Among these, NCC differentiated from H1-hESCs (H1-NCC) demonstrated the highest induction efficiency (72.45%), and H1-NCC-derived MSC (H1-NCC-MSC) displayed superior proliferation and anti-senescence properties compared to UC-MSC. Besides, H1-NCC-MSC exhibited therapeutic efficacy comparable to UC-MSC in both in vivo and in vitro models of chemotherapy-induced POI, potentially through mechanisms involving reduced GC apoptosis, alleviated oxidative stress, and improved mitochondrial function.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings propose a modified hPSC-NCC-MSC differentiation protocol, offering an inexhaustible and stable source for regenerative therapies. Furthermore, we provide the first experimental evidence that hPSC-NCC-MSC have therapeutic potential comparable to UC-MSC in restoring chemotherapy-induced POI. The underlying mechanisms are likely associated with paracrine-mediated effects on GC apoptosis, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial dysfunction.

Directing Rat Hair Follicle Stem Cells Toward Neuronal Lineage With Enhanced Trophic Factor Expression

Background

Hair follicle stem cells (HFSCs) are promising candidates for cell-based therapies in neurodegenerative diseases because of their ability to differentiate into neural lineages and exert paracrine effects in damaged tissues. However, their clinical application faces challenges, particularly in efficiently guiding them toward neural lineages. This study explores using chick embryo extract (CEE) to enhance HFSCs' secretory capacity and neuronal differentiation.

Materials and Methods

HFSCs from rat whisker pads were cultured in growth medium supplemented with either 20% FBS or a combination of 10% FBS and 10% CEE, transitioning to 20% FBS after the first subculture. We conducted gene expression profiling of lineage commitment markers and neurotrophic factors in both experimental groups, alongside morphological assessments and protein expression analyses.

Results

CEE supplementation during migration increased neuronal differentiation, evidenced by more cells with neurites and higher MAP2 expression at both the gene and protein levels. CEE also inhibited the expression of PDGFR-α, indicating a suppression of differentiation toward Schwann cells. Furthermore, we observed increased levels of trophic factors such as BDNF and VEGF at passage 3 induced by CEE supplementation.

Conclusions

Enhancing the neuronal lineage commitment of hair follicle stem cells (HFSCs) and boosting the expression of trophic and angiogenic factors through short-term CEE preconditioning during their migratory stage presents a compelling approach. This strategy holds great promise in enhancing the effectiveness of stem cell-based therapies for neurological disorders.

3D Bioprinting of Hyaline Cartilage Using Nasal Chondrocytes

Due to the limited self-repair capacity of the hyaline cartilage, the repair of cartilage remains an unsolved clinical problem. Tissue engineering strategy with 3D bioprinting technique has emerged a new insight by providing patient's personalized cartilage grafts using autologous cells for hyaline cartilage repair and regeneration. In this review, we first summarized the intrinsic property of hyaline cartilage in both maxillofacial and orthopedic regions to establish the requirement for 3D bioprinting cartilage tissue. We then reviewed the literature and provided opinion pieces on the selection of bioprinters, bioink materials, and cell sources. This review aims to identify the current challenges for hyaline cartilage bioprinting and the directions for future clinical development in bioprinted hyaline cartilage.

Efficient and cost-effective differentiation of induced neural crest cells from induced pluripotent stem cells using laminin 211

Introduction

Neural crest cells (NCCs) are cell populations that originate during the formation of neural crest in developmental stages. They are characterized by their multipotency, self-renewal and migration potential. Given their ability to differentiate into various types of cells such as neurons and Schwann cells, NCCs hold promise for cell therapy applications. The conventional method for obtaining NCCs involves inducing them from stem cells like induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), followed by a long-term passage or purification using fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS). Although FACS allows high purity induced neural crest cells (iNCCs) to be obtained quickly, it is complex and costly. Therefore, there is a need for a simpler, cost-effective and less time-consuming method for cell therapy application.

Methods

To select differentiated iNCCs from heterogeneous cell populations quickly without using FACS, we adopted the use of scaffold material full-length laminin 211 (LN211), a recombinant, xeno-free protein suitable for cell therapy. After fist passage on LN211, iNCCs characterization was performed using polymerase chain reaction and flow cytometry. Additionally, proliferation and multipotency to various cells were evaluated.

Result

The iNCCs obtained using our new method expressed cranial NCC- related genes and exhibited stable proliferation ability for at least 57 days, while maintaining high expression level of the NCCs marker CD271. They demonstrated differentiation ability into several cell types: neurons, astrocytes, melanocytes, smooth muscle cells, osteoblasts, adipocytes and chondrocytes. Furthermore, they could be induced to differentiate into induced mesenchymal stem cells (iMSCs) which retain the essential functions of somatic MSCs.

Conclusion

In this study, we have developed novel method for obtaining high purity iNCCs differentiated from iPSCs in a short time using LN211 under xeno-free condition. Compared with traditional methods, like FACS or long-term passage, this approach enables the acquisition of a large amount of cells at a lower cost and labor, and it is expected to contribute to stable supply of large scale iNCCs for future cell therapy applications.

The Biological Activity of Ganoderma lucidum on Neurodegenerative Diseases: The Interplay between Different Active Compounds and the Pathological Hallmarks

Neurodegenerative diseases represent a cluster of conditions characterized by the progressive degeneration of the structure and function of the nervous system. Despite significant advancements in understanding these diseases, therapeutic options remain limited. The medicinal mushroom Ganoderma lucidum has been recognized for its comprehensive array of bioactive compounds with anti-inflammatory and antioxidative effects, which possess potential neuroprotective properties. This literature review collates and examines the existing research on the bioactivity of active compounds and extracts from Ganoderma lucidum in modulating the pathological hallmarks of neurodegenerative diseases. The structural information and preparation processes of specific components, such as individual ganoderic acids and unique fractions of polysaccharides, are presented in detail to facilitate structure-activity relationship research and scale up the investigation of in vivo pharmacology. The mechanisms of these components against neurodegenerative diseases are discussed on multiple levels and elaborately categorized in different patterns. It is clearly presented from the patterns that most polysaccharides of Ganoderma lucidum possess neurotrophic effects, while ganoderic acids preferentially target specific pathogenic proteins as well as regulating autophagy. Further clinical trials are necessary to assess the translational potential of these components in the development of novel multi-target drugs for neurodegenerative diseases.

MSX1+PDGFRAlow limb mesenchyme-like cells as an efficient stem cell source for human cartilage regeneration

Degenerative bone disorders have a significant impact on global health, and regeneration of articular cartilage remains a challenge. Existing cell therapies using mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) have shown limited efficacy, highlighting the necessity for alternative stem cell sources. Here, we have identified and characterized MSX1+ mesenchymal progenitor cells in the developing limb bud with remarkable osteochondral-regenerative and microenvironment-adaptive capabilities. Single-cell sequencing further revealed the presence of two major cell compositions within the MSX1+ cells, where a distinct PDGFRAlow subset retained the strongest osteochondral competency and could efficiently regenerate articular cartilage in vivo. Furthermore, a strategy was developed to generate MSX1+PDGFRAlow limb mesenchyme-like (LML) cells from human pluripotent stem cells that closely resembled their mouse counterparts, which were bipotential in vitro and could directly regenerate damaged cartilage in a mouse injury model. Together, our results indicated that MSX1+PDGFRAlow LML cells might be a prominent stem cell source for human cartilage regeneration.

In-Depth Genomic Analysis: The New Challenge in Congenital Heart Disease

The use of next-generation sequencing has provided new insights into the causes and mechanisms of congenital heart disease (CHD). Examinations of the whole exome sequence have detected detrimental gene variations modifying single or contiguous nucleotides, which are characterised as pathogenic based on statistical assessments of families and correlations with congenital heart disease, elevated expression during heart development, and reductions in harmful protein-coding mutations in the general population. Patients with CHD and extracardiac abnormalities are enriched for gene classes meeting these criteria, supporting a common set of pathways in the organogenesis of CHDs. Single-cell transcriptomics data have revealed the expression of genes associated with CHD in specific cell types, and emerging evidence suggests that genetic mutations disrupt multicellular genes essential for cardiogenesis. Metrics and units are being tracked in whole-genome sequencing studies.

Neural crest cells and fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: Mechanisms and potential targets for prevention

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) are a group of preventable and nongenetic birth defects caused by prenatal alcohol exposure that can result in a range of cognitive, behavioral, emotional, and functioning deficits, as well as craniofacial dysmorphology and other congenital defects. During embryonic development, neural crest cells (NCCs) play a critical role in giving rise to many cell types in the developing embryos, including those in the peripheral nervous system and craniofacial structures. Ethanol exposure during this critical period can have detrimental effects on NCC induction, migration, differentiation, and survival, leading to a broad range of structural and functional abnormalities observed in individuals with FASD. This review article provides an overview of the current knowledge on the detrimental effects of ethanol on NCC induction, migration, differentiation, and survival. The article also examines the molecular mechanisms involved in ethanol-induced NCC dysfunction, such as oxidative stress, altered gene expression, apoptosis, epigenetic modifications, and other signaling pathways. Furthermore, the review highlights potential therapeutic strategies for preventing or mitigating the detrimental effects of ethanol on NCCs and reducing the risk of FASD. Overall, this article offers a comprehensive overview of the current understanding of the impact of ethanol on NCCs and its role in FASD, shedding light on potential avenues for future research and intervention.

Co-Administration of Resolvin D1 and Peripheral Nerve-Derived Stem Cell Spheroids as a Therapeutic Strategy in a Rat Model of Spinal Cord Injury

Spinal cord injury (SCI), primarily caused by trauma, leads to permanent and lasting loss of motor, sensory, and autonomic functions. Current therapeutic strategies are focused on mitigating secondary injury, a crucial aspect of SCI pathophysiology. Among these strategies, stem cell therapy has shown considerable therapeutic potential. This study builds on our previous work, which demonstrated the functional recovery and neuronal regeneration capabilities of peripheral nerve-derived stem cell (PNSC) spheroids, which are akin to neural crest stem cells, in SCI models. However, the limited anti-inflammatory capacity of PNSC spheroids necessitates a combined therapeutic approach. As a result, we investigated the potential of co-administering resolvin D1 (RvD1), known for its anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties, with PNSC spheroids. In vitro analysis confirmed RvD1's anti-inflammatory activity and its inhibitory effect on pro-inflammatory cytokines. In vivo studies involving a rat SCI model demonstrated that combined therapy of RvD1 and PNSC spheroids outperformed monotherapies, exhibiting enhanced neuronal regeneration and anti-inflammatory effects as validated through behavior tests, quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction, and immunohistochemistry. Thus, our findings suggest that the combined application of RvD1 and PNSC spheroids may represent a novel therapeutic approach for SCI management.

Colec12 and Trail signaling confine cranial neural crest cell trajectories and promote collective cell migration

BACKGROUND

Collective and discrete neural crest cell (NCC) migratory streams are crucial to vertebrate head patterning. However, the factors that confine NCC trajectories and promote collective cell migration remain unclear.

RESULTS

Computational simulations predicted that confinement is required only along the initial one-third of the cranial NCC migratory pathway. This guided our study of Colec12 (Collectin-12, a transmembrane scavenger receptor C-type lectin) and Trail (tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand, CD253) which we show expressed in chick cranial NCC-free zones. NCC trajectories are confined by Colec12 or Trail protein stripes in vitro and show significant and distinct changes in cell morphology and dynamic migratory characteristics when cocultured with either protein. Gain- or loss-of-function of either factor or in combination enhanced NCC confinement or diverted cell trajectories as observed in vivo with three-dimensional confocal microscopy, respectively, resulting in disrupted collective migration.

CONCLUSIONS

These data provide evidence for Colec12 and Trail as novel NCC microenvironmental factors playing a role to confine cranial NCC trajectories and promote collective cell migration.

Glycan Epitope and Integrin Expression Dynamics Characterize Neural Crest Epithelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT) in Human Pluripotent Stem Cell Differentiation

The neural crest gives rise to progeny as diverse as peripheral neurons, myelinating cells, cranial muscle, bone and cartilage tissues, and melanocytes. Neural crest derivation encompasses complex morphological change, including epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and migration to the eventual target locations throughout the body. Neural crest cultures derived from stem cells provide an attractive source for developmental studies in human model systems, of immediate biomedical relevance for neurocristopathies, neural cancer biology and regenerative medicine, if only appropriate markers for lineage and cell type definition and quality control criteria were available. Implementing a defined, scalable protocol to generate neural crest cells from embryonic stem cells, we identify stage-defining cluster-of-differentiation (CD) surface markers during human neural crest development in vitro. Acquisition of increasingly mesenchymal phenotype was characterized by absence of neuroepithelial stemness markers (CD15, CD133, CD49f) and by decrease of CD57 and CD24. Increased per-cell-expression of CD29, CD44 and CD73 correlated with established EMT markers as determined by immunofluorescence and immunoblot analysis. The further development towards migratory neural crest was associated with decreased CD24, CD49f (ITGA6) and CD57 (HNK1) versus an enhanced CD49d (ITGA4), CD49e (ITGA5) and CD51/CD61 (ITGAV/ITGB3) expression. Notably, a shift from CD57 to CD51/CD61 was identified as a sensitive surrogate surface indicator of EMT in neural crest in vitro development. The reported changes in glycan epitope and integrin surface expression may prove useful for elucidating neural crest stemness, EMT progression and malignancies.

Cell Fate Decisions in the Neural Crest, from Pigment Cell to Neural Development

The neural crest shows an astonishing multipotency, generating multiple neural derivatives, but also pigment cells, skeletogenic and other cell types. The question of how this process is controlled has been the subject of an ongoing debate for more than 35 years. Based upon new observations of zebrafish pigment cell development, we have recently proposed a novel, dynamic model that we believe goes some way to resolving the controversy. Here, we will firstly summarize the traditional models and the conflicts between them, before outlining our novel model. We will also examine our recent dynamic modelling studies, looking at how these reveal behaviors compatible with the biology proposed. We will then outline some of the implications of our model, looking at how it might modify our views of the processes of fate specification, differentiation, and commitment.

Metal transporter Slc30a1 controls pharyngeal neural crest differentiation via the zinc-Snai2-Jag1 cascade

The pharyngeal arch (PA) is a neural crest (NC)-derived organ that is transiently developed during embryogenesis and is required for the subsequent development of various tissues. However, the role of zinc during PA differentiation from NC progenitor cells is unknown. Here, we found that the metal transporters Slc30a1a and Slc30a1b mediate zinc homeostasis during PA differentiation. Slc30a1-deficient zebrafish develop zinc accumulation in NC cells, with increased expression of stemness markers and PA dorsal genes, and SMART-seq analyses revealed that the genes snai2 and jag1b may serve as downstream targets. Furthermore, functional studies showed that knocking down either snai2 or jag1b rescues PA development in Slc30a1-deficient zebrafish. Notably, we identified the double zinc-finger domain in the transcription factor Snai2 as a zinc-responsive element that regulates jag1b expression. Our findings indicate that the Slc30a1/zinc-snai2-jag1b axis is an essential regulatory network controlling PA differentiation, shedding new light on the function of zinc homeostasis in maintaining NC cell stemness and multipotency in vertebrates.

Harnessing 3D collagen hydrogel-directed conversion of human GMSCs into SCP-like cells to generate functionalized nerve conduits

Achieving a satisfactory functional recovery after severe peripheral nerve injuries (PNI) remains one of the major clinical challenges despite advances in microsurgical techniques. Nerve autografting is currently the gold standard for the treatment of PNI, but there exist several major limitations. Accumulating evidence has shown that various types of nerve guidance conduits (NGCs) combined with post-natal stem cells as the supportive cells may represent a promising alternative to nerve autografts. In this study, gingiva-derived mesenchymal stem cells (GMSCs) under 3D-culture in soft collagen hydrogel showed significantly increased expression of a panel of genes related to development/differentiation of neural crest stem-like cells (NCSC) and/or Schwann cell precursor-like (SCP) cells and associated with NOTCH3 signaling pathway activation as compared to their 2D-cultured counterparts. The upregulation of NCSC-related genes induced by 3D-collagen hydrogel was abrogated by the presence of a specific NOTCH inhibitor. Further study showed that GMSCs encapsulated in 3D-collagen hydrogel were capable of transmigrating into multilayered extracellular matrix (ECM) wall of natural NGCs and integrating well with the aligned matrix structure, thus leading to biofabrication of functionalized NGCs. In vivo, implantation of functionalized NGCs laden with GMSC-derived NCSC/SCP-like cells (designated as GiSCs), significantly improved the functional recovery and axonal regeneration in the segmental facial nerve defect model in rats. Together, our study has identified an approach for rapid biofabrication of functionalized NGCs through harnessing 3D collagen hydrogel-directed conversion of GMSCs into GiSCs.

Mechanotransductive Differentiation of Hair Follicle Stem Cells Derived from Aged Eyelid Skin into Corneal Endothelial-Like Cells

Corneal endothelial insufficiency is one of the leading causes of blindness. The main contemporary treatment for corneal blindness is endothelial keratoplasty, which, however, is unsatisfactory as a medical therapy due to the lack of donor corneas and graft rejection. Therefore, autologous stem cell-based corneal endothelial tissue substitutes may be a promising alternative to conventional grafts in the future. To address the age of most patients suffering from corneal endothelial deficiencies, we investigated the presence and potential of hair-derived stem cells from older tissue donors. Our studies revealed the presence of pluripotency- and neural crest-associated markers in tissue sections from blepharoplasty patients aged 50 to 80 years. In vitro outgrowths from eyelid hair follicles on collagen-coated tissue culture plates revealed a weak decrease in stem-cell potency. In contrast, cells within the spheres that spontaneously formed from the adherent cell layer retained full stem-cell potency and could be differentiated into cells of the ecto- meso and endodermal lineages. Although these highly potent hair follicle derived stem cells (HFSC) were only very slightly expandable, they were able to recognize the biomimicry of the Descemet’s-like topography and differentiate into corneal endothelial-like cells. In conclusion, HFSCs derived from epidermal skin of eyelid biopsies are a promising cell source to provide autologous corneal endothelial replacement for any age group of patients.

The Effects of the Olig Family on the Regulation of Spinal Cord Development and Regeneration

Neurons and glial cells in the central nervous system (CNS) are generated from neuroepithelial cells in the ventricular zone that surrounds the embryonic neural tube. The proliferation and distinct differentiation of neural precursors occurs at certain stages and are regulated by a series of transcription factors leading to the generation of neuronal and glial cell subtypes. In this manuscript, we review the effects of the Olig family, namely, members Olig1, Olig2 and Olig3, on the distinct differentiation of glial and neuronal cells in the developing spinal cord and injured neural tissue.

Neurons populating the rectal extrinsic nerves in humans express neuronal and Schwann cell markers

BACKGROUND

In mice, Schwann cell (SC) progenitors give rise to autonomic ganglion cells and migrate into the gut to become enteric neurons. It is unknown whether SC progenitors have a similar fate in humans. In search of evidence for human SC-derived neurogenesis in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, we studied the rectums from cadaveric controls and children with anorectal malformations (ARM).

METHODS

We analyzed distal rectal tissue taken at autopsy from 10 children with normal GI tracts and resected rectal specimens in 48 cases of ARM. Of these specimens, 6 had neurons within the extrinsic rectal innervation. These were further investigated with immunohistochemistry for neuronal and SC/glial markers.

KEY RESULTS

Perirectal tissue from control and ARM contained GLUT1-positive extrinsic nerves, many containing neurons. SC/glial markers (SOX10, CDH19, and PLP1) were expressed by glia in the enteric nervous system and perirectal nerves, while MPZ predominated only in glia of perirectal nerves, in both control and ARM. Neurons in perirectal nerves were 61% larger in ARM samples and co-expressed SOX10 (81%), PLP1 (73%), and CDH19 (56%). In ARM, cytoplasmic SOX10 was co-expressed with neuronal antigens in ~57% of submucosal and myenteric neurons, vs. ~3% in control. Furthermore, intrinsic gut neurons in ARM specimens co-expressed PLP1 (18%) and CDH19 (18%); however, neuronal co-expression of PLP1 and CDH19 was rarely (<2%) observed in controls.

CONCLUSIONS & INFERENCES

Dual expression of glial and neuronal markers in rectal and perirectal neurons support a model of Schwann cell-derived neurogenesis in the innervation of the human GI tract.

Peripheral Nerve-Derived Stem Cell Spheroids Induce Functional Recovery and Repair after Spinal Cord Injury in Rodents

Stem cell therapy is one of the most promising candidate treatments for spinal cord injury. Research has shown optimistic results for this therapy, but clinical limitations remain, including poor viability, engraftment, and differentiation. Here, we isolated novel peripheral nerve-derived stem cells (PNSCs) from adult peripheral nerves with similar characteristics to neural-crest stem cells. These PNSCs expressed neural-crest specific markers and showed multilineage differentiation potential into Schwann cells, neuroglia, neurons, and mesodermal cells. In addition, PNSCs showed therapeutic potential by releasing the neurotrophic factors, including glial cell-line-derived neurotrophic factor, insulin-like growth factor, nerve growth factor, and neurotrophin-3. PNSC abilities were also enhanced by their development into spheroids which secreted neurotrophic factors several times more than non-spheroid PNSCs and expressed several types of extra cellular matrix. These features suggest that the potential for these PNSC spheroids can overcome their limitations. In an animal spinal cord injury (SCI) model, these PNSC spheroids induced functional recovery and neuronal regeneration. These PNSC spheroids also reduced the neuropathic pain which accompanies SCI after remyelination. These PNSC spheroids may represent a new therapeutic approach for patients suffering from SCI.

Transplantation of human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neural crest cells for corneal endothelial regeneration

BACKGROUND

The corneal endothelium maintains corneal hydration through the barrier and pump function, while its dysfunction may cause corneal edema and vision reduction. Considering its development from neural crest cells (NCCs), here we investigated the efficacy of the human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC)-derived NCCs for corneal endothelial regeneration in rabbits.

METHODS

Directed differentiation of hiPSC-derived NCCs was achieved using the chemically defined medium containing GSK-3 inhibitor and TGF-β inhibitor. The differentiated cells were characterized by immunofluorescence staining, FACS analysis, and in vitro multi-lineage differentiation capacity. For in vivo functional evaluation, 1.0 × 106 hiPSC-derived NCCs or NIH-3 T3 fibroblasts (as control) combined with 100 μM Y-27632 were intracamerally injected into the anterior chamber of rabbits following removal of corneal endothelium. Rabbit corneal thickness and phenotype changes of the transplanted cells were examined at 7 and 14 days with handy pachymeter, dual-immunofluorescence staining, and quantitative RT-PCR.

RESULTS

The hiPSC-derived NCCs were differentiated homogenously through 7 days of induction and exhibited multi-lineage differentiation capacity into peripheral neurons, mesenchymal stem cells, and corneal keratocytes. After 7 days of intracameral injection in rabbit, the hiPSC-derived NCCs led to a gradual recovery of normal corneal thickness and clarity, when comparing to control rabbit with fibroblasts injection. However, the recovery efficacy after 14 days deteriorated and caused the reappearance of corneal edema. Mechanistically, the transplanted cells exhibited the impaired maturation, cellular senescence, and endothelial-mesenchymal transition (EnMT) after the early stage of the in vivo directional differentiation.

CONCLUSIONS

Transplantation of the hiPSC-derived NCCs rapidly restored rabbit corneal thickness and clarity. However, the long-term recovery efficacy was impaired by the improper maturation, senescence, and EnMT of the transplanted cells.

Bioactive Molecular Discovery Using Deer Antlers as a Model of Mammalian Regeneration

The ability to activate and regulate stem cells during wound healing and tissue regeneration is a promising field that is resulting in innovative approaches in the field of regenerative medicine. The regenerative capacity of invertebrates has been well documented; however, in mammals, stem cells that drive organ regeneration are rare. Deer antlers are the only known mammalian structure that can annually regenerate to produce a tissue containing dermis, blood vessels, nerves, cartilage, and bone. The neural crest derived stem cells that drive this process result in antlers growing at up to 2 cm/day. Deer antlers thus provide superior attributes compared to lower-order animal models, when investigating the regulation of stem cell-based regeneration. Antler stem cells can therefore be used as a model to investigate the bioactive molecules, biological processes, and pathways involved in the maintenance of a stem cell niche, and their activation and differentiation during organ formation. This review examines stem cell-based regeneration with a focus on deer antlers, a neural crest stem cell-based mammalian regenerative structure. It then discusses the omics technical platforms highlighting the proteomics approaches used for investigating the molecular mechanisms underlying stem cell regulation in antler tissues.

Umbilical artery tissue contains p75 neurotrophin receptor-positive pericyte-like cells that possess neurosphere formation capacity and neurogenic differentiation potential

INTRODUCTION

The p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75NTR) is known as an efficient marker for the prospective isolation of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and neural crest-derived stem cells (NCSCs). To date, there is quite limited information concerning p75NTR-expressing cells in umbilical cord (UC), although UC is known as a rich source of MSCs. We show for the first time the localization, phenotype, and functional properties of p75NTR+ cells in UC.

METHODS

Human UC tissue sections were subjected to immunohistochemistry for MSC markers including p75NTR. Enzymatically isolated umbilical artery (UA) cells containing p75NTR+ cells were assessed for immunophenotype, clonogenic capacity, and differentiation potential. To identify the presence of neural crest-derived cells in the UA, P0-Cre/Floxed-EGFP reporter mouse embryos were used, and immunohistochemical analysis of UC tissue was performed.

RESULTS

Immunohistochemical analysis revealed that p75NTR+ cells were specifically localized to the subendothelial area of the UA and umbilical vein. The p75NTR+ cells co-expressed PDGFRβ, CD90, CD146, and NG2, phenotypic markers of MSCs and pericytes. Isolated UA cells possessed the potential to form neurospheres that further differentiated into neuronal and glial cell lineages. Genetic lineage tracing analysis showed that EGFP+ neural crest-derived cells were detected in the subendothelial area of UA with p75NTR immunoreactivity.

CONCLUSIONS

These results show that UA tissue harbors p75NTR+ pericyte-like cells in the subendothelial area that have the capacity to form neurospheres and the potential for neurogenic differentiation. The lineage tracing data suggests the p75NTR+ cells are putatively derived from the neural crest.

Treatment and Prevention of Neurocristopathies

Neurocristopathies form a heterogeneous group of rare diseases caused by abnormal development of neural crest cells. Heterogeneity of neurocristopathies directly relates to the nature of these migratory and multipotent cells, which generate dozens of specialized cell types throughout the body. Neurocristopathies are thus characterized by congenital malformations of tissues/organs that otherwise appear to have very little in common, such as the craniofacial skeleton and enteric nervous system. Treatment options are currently very limited, mainly consisting of corrective surgeries. Yet, as reviewed here, analyses of normal and pathological neural crest development in model organisms have opened up the possibility for better treatment options involving cellular and molecular approaches. These approaches provide hope that some neurocristopathies might soon be curable or preventable.

Neural crest-like stem cells for tissue regeneration

Neural crest stem cells (NCSCs) are a transient population of cells that arise during early vertebrate development and harbor stem cell properties, such as self‐renewal and multipotency. These cells form at the interface of non‐neuronal ectoderm and neural tube and undergo extensive migration whereupon they contribute to a diverse array of cell and tissue derivatives, ranging from craniofacial tissues to cells of the peripheral nervous system. Neural crest‐like stem cells (NCLSCs) can be derived from pluripotent stem cells, placental tissues, adult tissues, and somatic cell reprogramming. NCLSCs have a differentiation capability similar to NCSCs, and possess great potential for regenerative medicine applications. In this review, we present recent developments on the various approaches to derive NCLSCs and the therapeutic application of these cells for tissue regeneration.

Neural crest-derived mesenchymal progenitor cells enhance cranial allograft integration

Replacement of lost cranial bone (partly mesodermal and partly neural crest‐derived) is challenging and includes the use of nonviable allografts. To revitalize allografts, bone marrow‐derived mesenchymal stromal cells (mesoderm‐derived BM‐MSCs) have been used with limited success. We hypothesize that coating of allografts with induced neural crest cell‐mesenchymal progenitor cells (iNCC‐MPCs) improves implant‐to‐bone integration in mouse cranial defects. Human induced pluripotent stem cells were reprogramed from dermal fibroblasts, differentiated to iNCCs and then to iNCC‐MPCs. BM‐MSCs were used as reference. Cells were labeled with luciferase (Luc2) and characterized for MSC consensus markers expression, differentiation, and risk of cellular transformation. A calvarial defect was created in non‐obese diabetic/severe combined immunodeficiency (NOD/SCID) mice and allografts were implanted, with or without cell coating. Bioluminescence imaging (BLI), microcomputed tomography (μCT), histology, immunofluorescence, and biomechanical tests were performed. Characterization of iNCC‐MPC‐Luc2 vs BM‐MSC‐Luc2 showed no difference in MSC markers expression and differentiation in vitro. In vivo, BLI indicated survival of both cell types for at least 8 weeks. At week 8, μCT analysis showed enhanced structural parameters in the iNCC‐MPC‐Luc2 group and increased bone volume in the BM‐MSC‐Luc2 group compared to controls. Histology demonstrated improved integration of iNCC‐MPC‐Luc2 allografts compared to BM‐MSC‐Luc2 group and controls. Human osteocalcin and collagen type 1 were detected at the allograft‐host interphase in cell‐seeded groups. The iNCC‐MPC‐Luc2 group also demonstrated improved biomechanical properties compared to BM‐MSC‐Luc2 implants and cell‐free controls. Our results show an improved integration of iNCC‐MPC‐Luc2‐coated allografts compared to BM‐MSC‐Luc2 and controls, suggesting the use of iNCC‐MPCs as potential cell source for cranial bone repair.

Contribution of neural crest-derived stem cells and nasal chondrocytes to articular cartilage regeneration

Due to poor self-regenerative potential of articular cartilage, stem cell-based regeneration becomes a hopeful approach for the treatment of articular cartilage defects. Recent studies indicate that neural crest-derived cells (NCDCs) have the potential for repairing articular cartilage with even greater chondrogenic capacity than mesoderm-derived cells (MDCs): a conventional stem cell source for cartilage regeneration. Given that NCDCs originate from a different germ layer in the early embryo compared with MDCs that give rise to articular cartilage, a mystery remains regarding their capacity for articular cartilage regeneration. In this review, we summarize the similarities and differences between MDCs and NCDCs including articular and nasal chondrocytes in cell origin, anatomy, and chondrogenic differentiation and propose that NCDCs might be promising cell origins for articular cartilage regeneration.

Insights into olfactory ensheathing cell development from a laser-microdissection and transcriptome-profiling approach

Olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) are neural crest-derived glia that ensheath bundles of olfactory axons from their peripheral origins in the olfactory epithelium to their central targets in the olfactory bulb. We took an unbiased laser microdissection and differential RNA-seq approach, validated by in situ hybridization, to identify candidate molecular mechanisms underlying mouse OEC development and differences with the neural crest-derived Schwann cells developing on other peripheral nerves. We identified 25 novel markers for developing OECs in the olfactory mucosa and/or the olfactory nerve layer surrounding the olfactory bulb, of which 15 were OEC-specific (that is, not expressed by Schwann cells). One pan-OEC-specific gene, Ptprz1, encodes a receptor-like tyrosine phosphatase that blocks oligodendrocyte differentiation. Mutant analysis suggests Ptprz1 may also act as a brake on OEC differentiation, and that its loss disrupts olfactory axon targeting. Overall, our results provide new insights into OEC development and the diversification of neural crest-derived glia.

Fibulin 5, a human Wharton's jelly-derived mesenchymal stem cells-secreted paracrine factor, attenuates peripheral nervous system myelination defects through the Integrin-RAC1 signaling axis

In the peripheral nervous system (PNS), proper development of Schwann cells (SCs) contributing to axonal myelination is critical for neuronal function. Impairments of SCs or neuronal axons give rise to several myelin-related disorders, including dysmyelinating and demyelinating diseases. Pathological mechanisms, however, have been understood at the elementary level and targeted therapeutics has remained undeveloped. Here, we identify Fibulin 5 (FBLN5), an extracellular matrix (ECM) protein, as a key paracrine factor of human Wharton's jelly-derived mesenchymal stem cells (WJ-MSCs) to control the development of SCs. We show that co-culture with WJ-MSCs or treatment of recombinant FBLN5 promotes the proliferation of SCs through ERK activation, whereas FBLN5-depleted WJ-MSCs do not. We further reveal that during myelination of SCs, FBLN5 binds to Integrin and modulates actin remodeling, such as the formation of lamellipodia and filopodia, through RAC1 activity. Finally, we show that FBLN5 effectively restores the myelination defects of SCs in the zebrafish model of Charcot-Marie-Tooth (CMT) type 1, a representative demyelinating disease. Overall, our data propose human WJ-MSCs or FBLN5 protein as a potential treatment for myelin-related diseases, including CMT.

Immunocytochemical characterization of primary teeth pulp stem cells from three stages of resorption in serum-free medium

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Dental pulp stem cells from primary teeth cultured in serum-free conditions may have clinical use for the repair and regeneration of teeth as well as other complex tissues and organs. The aim of this study was to test the change in the stem cell markers expression/ stem cell population in human primary pulp cells at the different stages of root resorption.

METHODS

Caries-free human primary canines at defined stages of physiological root resorption were included (n = 9). In vitro cultures were established in xeno-free, serum-free Essential 8™ medium with human truncated vitronectin for cell attachment. An embryonic stem cell line (GENEA002) was used as a positive control. The expression of embryonic stem cell markers (Oct4, Nanog and Sox2), neural crest stem cell markers (nestin and Dlx2) and mesenchymal stem cell surface markers (CD90, CD73 and CD105) were investigated by immunocytochemistry. Mesenchymal stem cell markers CD105, CD73 and CD90 and haematopoietic markers: CD45, CD34, CD11b, CD19 and HLA-DR were quantified with flow cytometry.

RESULTS

The early neural progenitor markers nestin and Dlx2 were detected in most serum-free cultured dental pulp stem cells, regardless of the tooth resorption stage from which they were harvested. Only isolated cells were found that expressed the embryonic stem cell transcription factors Oct4A, Nanog and Sox2, and in the late stages of resorption, no Oct4A was detected. The majority expressed the mesenchymal stem cell markers CD90, CD73 and CD105. Flow cytometry found positive signals for CD90 > 97.3%, CD73 > 99.6% and CD105 > 82.5%, with no detectable differences between resorption stages.

CONCLUSIONS

This study identified populations of dental pulp cells in vitro with markers characteristically associated with embryonic stem cells, neural crest-derived cells and mesenchymal stem cells. Flow cytometry found CD105 expressed at lower levels than CD90 and CD73. The consistency of stem cell marker expression in cells cultured from teeth at different resorption stages suggests that pre-exfoliated primary teeth that are free of caries may provide a convenient source of multipotent stem cells for use in regenerative medicine.

Advanced Modeling of Peripheral Neuro-Effector Communication and -Plasticity

The peripheral nervous system (PNS) plays crucial roles in physiology and disease. Neuro-effector communication and neuroplasticity of the PNS are poorly studied, since suitable models are lacking. The emergence of human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) has great promise to resolve this deficit. hPSC-derived PNS neurons, integrated into organ-on-a-chip systems or organoid cultures, allow co-cultures with cells of the local microenvironment to study neuro-effector interactions and to probe mechanisms underlying neuroplasticity.

Isolation and characterization of neural crest-like progenitor cells in human umbilical cord blood

Introduction

Neural crest (NC)-like stem/progenitor cells provide an attractive cell source for regenerative medicine because of their multipotent property and ease of isolation from adult tissue. Although human umbilical cord blood (HUCB) is known to be a rich source of stem cells, the presence of the NC-like stem/progenitor cells in HUCB remains to be elucidated. In this study, we have isolated NC-like progenitor cells using an antibody to p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75NTR) and examined their phenotype and stem cell function in vitro.

Methods

To confirm whether p75NTR⁺ NC-derived cells are present in cord blood, flow cytometric analysis of cord blood derived from P0-Cre/Floxed-EGFP reporter mouse embryos was performed. Freshly isolated HUCB mononuclear cells was subjected to flow cytometry to detect p75NTR⁺ cells and determined their immunophenotype. HUCB p75NTR⁺ cells were then collected by immunomagnetic separation and their immunophenotype, clonogenic potential, gene expression profile, and multilineage differentiation potential were examined.

Results

NC-derived EGFP⁺ cells co-expressing p75NTR was detected in cord blood of P0-Cre/Floxed-EGFP reporter mice. We found that freshly isolated HUCB mononuclear cells contained 0.23% of p75NTR⁺ cells. Isolated p75NTR⁺ cells from HUCB efficiently formed neurospheres and could differentiate into neuronal and glial cell lineages. The p75NTR⁺ cells expressed a set of NC-associated genes and undifferentiated neural cell marker genes before and after the culture.

Conclusions

These findings revealed that HUCB contained the p75NTR⁺ NC-like progenitor cell population which have the self-renewal capacity and the potential to differentiate into both neuronal and glial cell lineages.

Establishing Primary Cultures of Trunk Neural Crest Cells

Neural crest cells constitute a unique population of progenitor cells with extensive stem cell capacities able to navigate throughout various environments in the embryo and are a source of multiple cell types, including neurons, glia, melanocytes, smooth muscles, endocrine cells, cardiac cells, and also skeletal and supportive tissues in the head. Neural crest cells are not restricted to the embryo but persist as well in adult tissues where they provide a reservoir of stem cells with great therapeutic promise. Many fundamental questions in cell, developmental, and stem cell biology can be addressed using this system. During the last decades there has been an increased availability of elaborated techniques, animal models, and molecular tools to tackle neural crest cell development. However, these approaches are often very challenging and difficult to establish and they are not adapted for rapid functional investigations of mechanisms driving cell migration and differentiation. In addition, they are not adequate for collecting pure populations of neural crest cells usable in large scale analyses and for stem cell studies. Transferring and adapting the neural crest system in tissue culture may then represent an attractive alternative, opening up numerous prospects. Here we describe a simple method for establishing primary cultures of neural crest cells derived from trunk neural tubes using the avian embryo as a source of cells. This protocol is suited for producing pure populations of neural crest cells that can be processed for cytological, cellular, and functional approaches aimed at characterizing their phenotype, behavior, and potential. © 2020 Wiley Periodicals LLC. Basic Protocol: Primary cultures of avian trunk neural crest cells Support Protocol: Adaptations for immunofluorescence labeling and videomicroscopy.

Nuclear DLC1 exerts oncogenic function through association with FOXK1 for cooperative activation of MMP9 expression in melanoma

A Rho GTPase-activating protein (RhoGAP), deleted in liver cancer 1 (DLC1), is known to function as a tumor suppressor in various cancer types; however, whether DLC1 is a tumor-suppressor gene or an oncogene in melanoma remains to be clarified. Here we revealed that high DLC1 expression was detected in most of the melanoma tissues where it was localized in both the nuclei and the cytoplasm. Functional studies unveiled that DLC1 was both required and sufficient for melanoma growth and metastasis. These tumorigenic events were mediated by nuclear-localized DLC1 in a RhoGAP-independent manner. Mechanistically, mass spectrometry analysis identified a DLC1-associated protein, FOXK1 transcription factor, which mediated oncogenic events in melanoma by translocating and retaining DLC1 into the nucleus. RNA-sequencing profiling studies further revealed MMP9 as a direct target of FOXK1 through DLC1-regulated promoter occupancy for cooperative activation of MMP9 expression to promote melanoma invasion and metastasis. Concerted action of DLC1-FOXK1 in MMP9 gene regulation was further supported by their highly correlated expression in melanoma patients' samples and cell lines. Together, our results not only unravel a mechanism by which nuclear DLC1 functions as an oncogene in melanoma but also suggest an unexpected role of RhoGAP protein in transcriptional regulation.

EXPERIMENTAL RATIONALE OF THE USE OF CELL THERAPY FOR THE TREATMENT OF GLAUCOMA OPTICAL NEUROPATHY

Development of new effective treatments for glaucomatous optic neuropathy is one of the most acute aspects of modern ophthalmology. The aim of the work is to investigate the effectiveness of cell therapy with postnatal multipotent neural crest stem cells (NCSCs) using different cell delivery methods in a model of adrenaline-induced glaucoma. Materials and methods. Glaucoma was induced in Wistar rats by intraperitoneal injections of 10 μg to 15 μg/100 g body weight of 0.18 % adrenaline hydrotartrate. NCSCs were delivered intravenously (5 million cells), retrobulbarly (0.5 million cells) or parabulbarly (0.5 million cells). Histomorphometric analysis of the retina was performed on stained haematoxylin-eosin sections with a thickness of 5 μm one month after the delivery of NCSCs. Results. NCSCs transplantation by all modes of delivery caused positive morphological changes to varying degrees. Intravenous administration induced a decrease in edema in all retinal layers and a slight restoration of the cytoarchitectonics of the retinal layers. The parabulbar administration of NCSCs led to a decrease in edema and the restoration of the cytoarchitectonics of the layers, most pronouncedly the ganglion cell layer and the inner retinal layer. After the retrobulbar administration of NCSCs, the reduction in edema and restoration of the cytoarchitectonics of the layers were the most pronounced. Conclusions. According to the results of the study, the positive effect of NCSCs transplantation in an experimental model of glaucoma was the most pronounced following the retrobulbar injection of cells. Further investigations of the mechanisms of the effect of transplanted NCSCs on retinal structure restoration are needed.

Molecular Characterization of Embryonic Stem Cell-Derived Cardiac Neural Crest-Like Cells Revealed a Spatiotemporal Expression of an Mlc-3 Isoform

Background and Objectives

Pluripotent embryonic stem (ES) cells represent a perfect model system for the investigation of early developmental processes. Besides their differentiation into derivatives of the three primary germ layers, they can also be differentiated into derivatives of the ‘fourth’ germ layer, the neural crest (NC). Due to its multipotency, extensive migration and outstanding capacity to generate a remarkable number of different cell types, the NC plays a key role in early developmental processes. Cardiac neural crest (CNC) cells are a subpopulation of the NC, which are of crucial importance for precise cardiovascular and pharyngeal glands’ development. CNC-associated malformations are rare, but always severe and life-threatening. Appropriate cell models could help to unravel underlying pathomechanisms and to develop new therapeutic options for relevant heart malformations.

Methods

Murine ES cells were differentiated according to a mesodermal-lineage promoting protocol. Expression profiles of ES cell-derived progeny at various differentiation stages were investigated on transcript and protein level.

Results

Comparative expression profiling of murine ES cell multilineage progeny versus undifferentiated ES cells confirmed differentiation into known cell derivatives of the three primary germ layers and provided evidence that ES cells have the capacity to differentiate into NC/CNC-like cells. Applying the NC/CNC cell-specific marker, 4E9R, an unambiguous identification of ES cell-derived NC/CNC-like cells was achieved.

Conclusions

Our findings will facilitate the establishment of an ES cell-derived CNC cell model for the investigation of molecular pathways during cardiac development in health and disease.

Fbxo9 functions downstream of Sox10 to determine neuron-glial fate choice in the dorsal root ganglia through Neurog2 destabilization

The transcription factor Sox10 is a key regulator in the fate determination of a subpopulation of multipotent trunk neural crest (NC) progenitors toward glial cells instead of sensory neurons in the dorsal root ganglia (DRG). However, the mechanism by which Sox10 regulates glial cell fate commitment during lineage segregation remains poorly understood. In our study, we showed that the neurogenic determinant Neurogenin 2 (Neurog2) exhibited transient overlapping expression with Sox10 in avian trunk NC progenitors, which progressively underwent lineage segregation during migration toward the forming DRG. Gain- and loss-of-function studies revealed that the temporary expression of Neurog2 was due to Sox10 regulation of its protein stability. Transcriptional profiling identified Sox10-regulated F-box only protein (Fbxo9), which is an SCF (Skp1-Cul-F-box)-type ubiquitin ligase for Neurog2. Consistently, overexpression of Fbxo9 in NC progenitors down-regulated Neurog2 protein expression through ubiquitination and promoted the glial lineage at the expense of neuronal differentiation, whereas Fbxo9 knockdown resulted in the opposite phenomenon. Mechanistically, we found that Fbxo9 interacted with Neurog2 to promote its destabilization through the F-box motif. Finally, epistasis analysis further demonstrated that Fbxo9 and probably other F-box members mediated the role of Sox10 in destabilizing Neurog2 protein and directing the lineage of NC progenitors toward glial cells rather than sensory neurons. Altogether, these findings unravel a Sox10-Fbxo9 regulatory axis in promoting the glial fate of NC progenitors through Neurog2 destabilization.

The role of teratogens in neural crest development

The neural crest (NC), discovered by Wilhelm His 150 years ago, gives rise to a multipotent migratory embryonic cell population that generates a remarkably diverse and important array of cell types during the development of the vertebrate embryo. These cells originate in the neural plate border (NPB), which is the ectoderm between the neural plate and the epidermis. They give rise to the neurons and glia of the peripheral nervous system, melanocytes, chondrocytes, smooth muscle cells, odontoblasts and neuroendocrine cells, among others. Neurocristopathies are a class of congenital diseases resulting from the abnormal induction, specification, migration, differentiation or death of NC cells (NCCs) during embryonic development and have an important medical and societal impact. In general, congenital defects affect an appreciable percentage of newborns worldwide. Some of these defects are caused by teratogens, which are agents that negatively impact the formation of tissues and organs during development. In this review, we will discuss the teratogens linked to the development of many birth defects, with a strong focus on those that specifically affect the development of the NC, thereby producing neurocristopathies. Although increasing attention is being paid to the effect of teratogens on embryonic development in general, there is a strong need to critically evaluate the specific role of these agents in NC development. Therefore, increased understanding of the role of these factors in NC development will contribute to the planning of strategies aimed at the prevention and treatment of human neurocristopathies, whose etiology was previously not considered.

Extracellular Matrix Composition and Remodeling: Current Perspectives on Secondary Palate Formation, Cleft Lip/Palate, and Palatal Reconstruction

Craniofacial development comprises a complex process in humans in which failures or disturbances frequently lead to congenital anomalies. Cleft lip with/without palate (CL/P) is a common congenital anomaly that occurs due to variations in craniofacial development genes, and may occur as part of a syndrome, or more commonly in isolated forms (non-syndromic). The etiology of CL/P is multifactorial with genes, environmental factors, and their potential interactions contributing to the condition. Rehabilitation of CL/P patients requires a multidisciplinary team to perform the multiple surgical, dental, and psychological interventions required throughout the patient's life. Despite progress, lip/palatal reconstruction is still a major treatment challenge. Genetic mutations and polymorphisms in several genes, including extracellular matrix (ECM) genes, soluble factors, and enzymes responsible for ECM remodeling (e.g., metalloproteinases), have been suggested to play a role in the etiology of CL/P; hence, these may be considered likely targets for the development of new preventive and/or therapeutic strategies. In this context, investigations are being conducted on new therapeutic approaches based on tissue bioengineering, associating stem cells with biomaterials, signaling molecules, and innovative technologies. In this review, we discuss the role of genes involved in ECM composition and remodeling during secondary palate formation and pathogenesis and genetic etiology of CL/P. We also discuss potential therapeutic approaches using bioactive molecules and principles of tissue bioengineering for state-of-the-art CL/P repair and palatal reconstruction.

Non-proliferative neurogenesis in human periodontal ligament stem cells

Understanding the sequence of events from undifferentiated stem cells to neuron is not only important for the basic knowledge of stem cell biology, but also for therapeutic applications. In this study we examined the sequence of biological events during neural differentiation of human periodontal ligament stem cells (hPDLSCs). Here, we show that hPDLSCs-derived neural-like cells display a sequence of morphologic development highly similar to those reported before in primary neuronal cultures derived from rodent brains. We observed that cell proliferation is not present through neurogenesis from hPDLSCs. Futhermore, we may have discovered micronuclei movement and transient cell nuclei lobulation coincident to in vitro neurogenesis. Morphological analysis also reveals that neurogenic niches in the adult mouse brain contain cells with nuclear shapes highly similar to those observed during in vitro neurogenesis from hPDLSCs. Our results provide additional evidence that it is possible to differentiate hPDLSCs to neuron-like cells and suggest the possibility that the sequence of events from stem cell to neuron does not necessarily requires cell division from stem cell.

Adult tissue-derived neural crest-like stem cells: Sources, regulatory networks, and translational potential

Neural crest (NC) cells are a multipotent stem cell population that give rise to a diverse array of cell types in the body, including peripheral neurons, Schwann cells (SC), craniofacial cartilage and bone, smooth muscle cells, and melanocytes. NC formation and differentiation into specific lineages takes place in response to a set of highly regulated signaling and transcriptional events within the neural plate border. Premigratory NC cells initially are contained within the dorsal neural tube from which they subsequently emigrate, migrating to often distant sites in the periphery. Following their migration and differentiation, some NC‐like cells persist in adult tissues in a nascent multipotent state, making them potential candidates for autologous cell therapy. This review discusses the gene regulatory network responsible for NC development and maintenance of multipotency. We summarize the genes and signaling pathways that have been implicated in the differentiation of a postmigratory NC into mature myelinating SC. We elaborate on the signals and transcription factors involved in the acquisition of immature SC fate, axonal sorting of unmyelinated neuronal axons, and finally the path toward mature myelinating SC, which envelope axons within myelin sheaths, facilitating electrical signal propagation. The gene regulatory events guiding development of SC in vivo provides insights into means for differentiating NC‐like cells from adult human tissues into functional SC, which have the potential to provide autologous cell sources for the treatment of demyelinating and neurodegenerative disorders.

Acquisition of multipotent and migratory neural crest cells in vertebrate evolution

The emergence of multipotent and migratory neural crest (NC) cells defines a key evolutionary transition from invertebrates to vertebrates. Studies in vertebrates have identified a complex gene regulatory network that governs sequential stages of NC ontogeny. Comparative analysis has revealed extensive conservation of the overall architecture of the NC gene regulatory network between jawless and jawed vertebrates. Among invertebrates, urochordates express putative NC gene homologs in the neural plate border region, but these NC-like cells do not have migratory capacity, whereas cephalochordates contain no NC cells but its genome contains most homologs of vertebrate NC genes. Whether the absence of migratory NC cells in invertebrates is due to differences in enhancer elements or an intrinsic limitation in potency remains unclear. We provide a brief overview of mechanisms that might explain how ancestral NC-like cells acquired the multipotency and migratory capacity seen in vertebrates.

Chemical Reprogramming of Somatic Cells in Neural Direction: Myth or Reality?

In in vitro experiments on cultures of human multipotent stem cells from the human bonearrow and dental pulp, we studied direct reprogramming towards neuro-glial lineage cells using a cocktail of small molecules. Reprogramming by the previously published protocol (with a cocktail containing β-mercaptoethanol, LIF, VPA, CHIR99021, and RepSox) and by the optimized protocol (VPA, RG108, А83-01, dorsomorphin, thiazovivin, CHIR99021, forskolin, and Isx9) allows obtaining cells with immunophenotypic and genetic signs of neural stem cells. However, neither the former, nor the optimized protocols allowed preparing neural progenitors capable of adequate terminal differentiation from both bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells and nestin-positive neural crest-derived mesenchymal stem cells. Real-time PCR demonstrated the expression of some neurogenesis markers, but neural stem cell-specific expression pattern was not observed. The findings lead us to a conclusion that reprogramming with small molecules without additional factors modifying gene expression does not allow reproducible production of human neural stem cell-like progenitors that can be used as the source of neural tissue for the regenerative therapy.

Neural crest stem cells from human epidermis of aged donors maintain their multipotency in vitro and in vivo

Neural crest (NC) cells are multipotent stem cells that arise from the embryonic ectoderm, delaminate from the neural tube in early vertebrate development and migrate throughout the developing embryo, where they differentiate into various cell lineages. Here we show that multipotent and functional NC cells can be derived by induction with a growth factor cocktail containing FGF2 and IGF1 from cultures of human inter-follicular keratinocytes (KC) isolated from elderly donors. Adult NC cells exhibited longer doubling times as compared to neonatal NC cells, but showed limited signs of cellular senescence despite the advanced age of the donors and exhibited significantly younger epigenetic age as compared to KC. They also maintained their multipotency, as evidenced by their ability to differentiate into all NC-specific lineages including neurons, Schwann cells, melanocytes, and smooth muscle cells (SMC). Notably, upon implantation into chick embryos, adult NC cells behaved similar to their embryonic counterparts, migrated along stereotypical pathways and contributed to multiple NC derivatives in ovo. These results suggest that KC-derived NC cells may provide an easily accessible, autologous source of stem cells that can be used for treatment of neurodegenerative diseases or as a model system for studying disease pathophysiology and drug development.

Potential therapeutic roles of stem cells in ischemia-reperfusion injury

Ischemia-reperfusion injury (I/RI), produced by an initial interruption of organ blood flow and its subsequent restoration, contributes significantly to the pathophysiologies of stroke, myocardial infarction, renal I/RI, intestinal I/RI and liver I/RI, which are major causes of disability (including transplant failure) and even mortality. While the restoration of blood flow is required to restore oxygen and nutrient requirements, reperfusion often triggers local and systemic inflammatory responses and subsequently elevate the ischemic insult where the duration of ischemia determines the magnitude of I/RI damage. I/RI increases vascular leakage, changes transcriptional and cell death programs, drives leukocyte entrapment and inflammation and oxidative stress in tissues. Therapeutic approaches which reduce complications associated with I/RI are desperately needed to address the clinical and economic burden created by I/RI. Stem cells (SC) represent ubiquitous and uncommitted cell populations with the ability to self-renew and differentiate into one or more developmental 'fates'. Like immune cells, stem cells can home to and penetrate I/R-injured tissues, where they can differentiate into target tissues and induce trophic paracrine signaling which suppress injury and maintain tissue functions perturbed by ischemia-reperfusion. This review article summarizes the present use and possible protective mechanisms underlying stem cell protection in diverse forms of ischemia-reperfusion.

The diverse neural crest: from embryology to human pathology

We review here some of the historical highlights in exploratory studies of the vertebrate embryonic structure known as the neural crest. The study of the molecular properties of the cells that it produces, their migratory capacities and plasticity, and the still-growing list of tissues that depend on their presence for form and function, continue to enrich our understanding of congenital malformations, paediatric cancers and evolutionary biology. Developmental biology has been key to our understanding of the neural crest, starting with the early days of experimental embryology and through to today, when increasingly powerful technologies contribute to further insight into this fascinating vertebrate cell population.

Comparative Analysis of Biological Properties of Large-Scale Expanded Adult Neural Crest-Derived Stem Cells Isolated from Human Hair Follicle and Skin Dermis

Introduction

The adult neural crest-derived stem cells (NCSCs) have significant perspectives for use in regenerative medicine. The most attractive sources for adult NCSC isolation are the hair follicles (HF) and skin dermis (SD) because of easy access and minimally invasive biopsy. The aim of this study was to compare the biological properties of HF- and SD-derived NCSCs after their large-scale expansion.

Methods

The conventional explant method was used to obtain HF NCSCs. For the isolation of SD NCSCs, a new combined technique consisting of preplating and subsequent culturing in 3D blood plasma-derived fibrin hydrogel was applied. The studied cells were characterized by flow cytometry, ICC, qPCR, Bio-Plex multiplex assay, and directed multilineage differentiation assays.

Results

We have obtained both adult SD and HF NCSCs from each skin sample (n = 5). Adult SD and HF NCSCs were positive for key neural crest markers: SOX10, P75 (CD271), NESTIN, SOX2, and CD349. SD NCSCs showed a higher growth rate during the large-scale expansion compared to HF NCSCs (p < 0.01). Final population of SD NCSCs also contained more clonogenic cells (p < 0.01) and SOX10⁺, CD271⁺, CD105⁺, CD140a⁺, CD146⁺, CD349⁺ cells (p < 0.01). Both HF and SD NCSCs had similar gene expression profiling and produced growth factors, but some quantitative differences were detected. Adult HF and SD NCSCs were able to undergo directed differentiation into neurons, Schwann cells, adipocytes, and osteoblasts.

Conclusion

The HF and SD are suitable sources for large-scale manufacturing of adult NCSCs with similar biological properties. We demonstrated that the NCSC population from SD was homogenous and displayed significantly higher growth rate than HF NCSCs. Moreover, SD NCSC isolation is cheaper, easier, and minimally time-consuming method.

SOX9 is a dose-dependent metastatic fate determinant in melanoma

BACKGROUND

In this research, we aimed to resolve contradictory results whether SOX9 plays a positive or negative role in melanoma progression and determine whether SOX9 and its closely related member SOX10 share the same or distinct targets in mediating their functions in melanoma.

METHODS

Immunofluorescence, TCGA database and qPCR were used to analyze the correlation between the expression patterns and levels of SOX9, SOX10 and NEDD9 in melanoma patient samples. AlamarBlue, transwell invasion and colony formation assays in melanoma cell lines were conducted to investigate the epistatic relationship between SOX10 and NEDD9, as well as the effects of graded SOX9 expression levels. Lung metastasis was determined by tail vein injection assay. Live cell imaging was conducted to monitor dynamics of melanoma migratory behavior. RHOA and RAC1 activation assays measured the activity of Rho GTPases.

RESULTS

High SOX9 expression was predominantly detected in patients with distant melanoma metastases whereas SOX10 was present in the different stages of melanoma. Both SOX9 and SOX10 exhibited distinct but overlapping expression patterns with metastatic marker NEDD9. Accordingly, SOX10 was required for NEDD9 expression, which partly mediated its oncogenic functions in melanoma cells. Compensatory upregulation of SOX9 expression in SOX10-inhibited melanoma cells reduced growth and migratory capacity, partly due to elevated expression of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p21 and lack of NEDD9 induction. Conversely, opposite phenomenon was observed when SOX9 expression was further elevated to a range of high SOX9 expression levels in metastatic melanoma specimens, and that high levels of SOX9 can restore melanoma progression in the absence of SOX10 both in vitro and in vivo. In addition, overexpression of SOX9 can also promote invasiveness of the parental melanoma cells by modulating the expression of various matrix metalloproteinases. SOX10 or high SOX9 expression regulates melanoma mesenchymal migration through the NEDD9-mediated focal adhesion dynamics and Rho GTPase signaling.

CONCLUSIONS

These results unravel NEDD9 as a common target for SOX10 or high SOX9 to partly mediate their oncogenic events, and most importantly, reconcile previous discrepancies that suboptimal level of SOX9 expression is anti-metastatic whereas high level of SOX9 is metastatic in a heterogeneous population of melanoma.

Identification of Embryonic Neural Plate Border Stem Cells and Their Generation by Direct Reprogramming from Adult Human Blood Cells

We report the direct reprogramming of both adult human fibroblasts and blood cells into induced neural plate border stem cells (iNBSCs) by ectopic expression of four neural transcription factors. Self-renewing, clonal iNBSCs can be robustly expanded in defined media while retaining multilineage differentiation potential. They generate functional cell types of neural crest and CNS lineages and could be used to model a human pain syndrome via gene editing of SCN9A in iNBSCs. NBSCs can also be derived from human pluripotent stem cells and share functional and molecular features with NBSCs isolated from embryonic day 8.5 (E8.5) mouse neural folds. Single-cell RNA sequencing identified the anterior hindbrain as the origin of mouse NBSCs, with human iNBSCs sharing a similar regional identity. In summary, we identify embryonic NBSCs and report their generation by direct reprogramming in human, which may facilitate insights into neural development and provide a neural stem cell source for applications in regenerative medicine.

Latin American contributions to the neural crest field

The neural crest (NC) is one of the most fascinating structures during embryonic development. Unique to vertebrate embryos, these cells give rise to important components of the craniofacial skeleton, such as the jaws and skull, as well as melanocytes and ganglia of the peripheral nervous system. Worldwide, several groups have been studying NC development and specifically in the Latin America (LA) they have been growing in numbers since the 1990s. It is important for the world to recognize the contributions of LA researchers on the knowledge of NC development, as it can stimulate networking and improvement in the field. We developed a database of LA publications on NC development using ORCID and PUBMED as search engines. We thoroughly describe all of the contributions from LA, collected in five major topics on NC development mechanisms: i) induction and specification; ii) migration; iii) differentiation; iv) adult NC; and, v) neurocristopathies. Further analysis was done to correlate each LA country with topics and animal models, and to access collaboration between LA countries. We observed that some LA countries have made important contributions to the comprehension of NC development. Interestingly, some LA countries have a topic and an animal model as their strength; in addition, collaboration between LA countries is almost inexistent. This review will help LA NC research to be acknowledged, and to facilitate networking between students and researchers worldwide.