Tetraspanin CD151 plays a key role in skin squamous cell carcinoma

Impact of CD151 overexpression on prognosis and therapy in non-small cell lung cancer patients lacking EGFR mutations

This study investigates CD151, a protein linked to cancer progression, in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients without epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) mutations. These patients often have limited treatment options. The study used retrospective analysis to examine 157 adenocarcinoma biopsy specimens and 199 patient cases from The Cancer Genome Atlas, correlating CD151 expression with patient survival. Cellular studies revealed that CD151 interacts with EGFR, influencing epidermal growth factor (EGF)-induced cell proliferation and the effectiveness of the EGFR inhibitor, erlotinib. A strong association was found between CD151 expression and EGFR mutation status. High CD151 expression in the absence of EGFR mutations is correlated with poorer survival outcomes. Biological assays showed that CD151 colocalizes and associates with EGFR, playing a crucial role in regulating EGF-induced cell proliferation via the AKT and ERK1/2 pathways. Importantly, CD151 expression was found to influence the anti-proliferative effects of the EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitor, erlotinib. High CD151 expression, in the absence of EGFR mutations, was associated with poorer survival outcomes. It could serve as a potential prognostic marker and influence cellular responses to EGFR-targeted treatments. This study highlights CD151 as a potential novel target for therapeutic intervention in NSCLC, especially in populations lacking EGFR mutations.

The Context-Dependent Impact of Integrin-Associated CD151 and Other Tetraspanins on Cancer Development and Progression: A Class of Versatile Mediators of Cellular Function and Signaling, Tumorigenesis and Metastasis

Simple Summary

Tetraspanins are a family of molecules abundantly expressed on the surface of normal or tumor cells. They have been implicated in recruiting or sequestering key molecular regulators of malignancy of a variety of human cancers, including breast and lung cancers, glioblastoma and leukemia. Yet, how their actions take place remains mysterious due to a lack of traditional platform for molecular interactions. The current review digs into this mystery by examining findings from recent studies of multiple tetraspanins, particularly CD151. The molecular basis for differential impact of tetraspanins on tumor development, progression, and spreading to secondary sites is highlighted, and the complexity and plasticity of their control over tumor cell activities and interaction with their surroundings is discussed. Finally, an outlook is provided regarding tetraspanins as candidate biomarkers and targets for the diagnosis and treatment of human cancer.

Abstract

As a family of integral membrane proteins, tetraspanins have been functionally linked to a wide spectrum of human cancers, ranging from breast, colon, lung, ovarian, prostate, and skin carcinomas to glioblastoma. CD151 is one such prominent member of the tetraspanin family recently suggested to mediate tumor development, growth, and progression in oncogenic context- and cell lineage-dependent manners. In the current review, we summarize recent advances in mechanistic understanding of the function and signaling of integrin-associated CD151 and other tetraspanins in multiple cancer types. We also highlight emerging genetic and epigenetic evidence on the intrinsic links between tetraspanins, the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), cancer stem cells (CSCs), and the Wnt/β-catenin pathway, as well as the dynamics of exosome and cellular metabolism. Finally, we discuss the implications of the highly plastic nature and epigenetic susceptibility of CD151 expression, function, and signaling for clinical diagnosis and therapeutic intervention for human cancer.

Emerging Laminin-332‒Dependent and ‒Independent Roles for Integrin α3 in Protumorigenic Signaling

The epidermal integrin α3β1 promotes skin tumorigenesis in experimental models; yet, the underlying molecular mechanisms remain mostly unclear. In their article, Ramovs et al. (2020a) identify two spatially separated α3β1-dependent signaling branches fostering skin tumor outgrowth. In basal keratinocytes, α3β1/laminin (LN)-332 drives FAK/Src activation, whereas in suprabasal layers, junctional α3β1 and the tetraspanin CD151 mediate signal transducer and protein kinase B (Akt)‒dependent survival that is independent of LN-332 binding.

Integrin α3β1 Is a Key Regulator of Several Protumorigenic Pathways during Skin Carcinogenesis

Integrin α3β1 plays a crucial role in tumor formation in the two-stage chemical carcinogenesis model (DMBA and TPA treatment). However, the mechanisms whereby the expression of α3β1 influences key oncogenic drivers of this established model are not known yet. Using an in vivo mouse model with epidermal deletion of α3β1 and in vitro Matrigel cultures of transformed keratinocytes, we demonstrate the central role of α3β1 in promoting the activation of several protumorigenic signaling pathways during the initiation of DMBA/TPA‒driven tumorigenesis. In transformed keratinocytes, α3β1-mediated focal adhesion kinase/Src activation leads to in vitro growth of spheroids and to strong Akt and STAT 3 activation when the α3β1-binding partner tetraspanin CD151 is present to stabilize cell‒cell adhesion and promote Smad2 phosphorylation. Remarkably, α3β1 and CD151 can support Akt and STAT 3 activity independently of α3β1 ligation by laminin-332 and as such control the essential survival signals required for suprabasal keratin-10 expression during keratinocyte differentiation. These data demonstrate that α3β1 together with CD151 regulate the signaling pathways that control the survival of differentiating keratinocytes and provide a mechanistic understanding of the essential role of α3β1 in early stages of skin cancer development.

Extracellular Vesicles in Trypanosomatids: Host Cell Communication

Trypanosoma cruzi, Trypanosoma brucei and Leishmania (Trypanosomatidae: Kinetoplastida) are parasitic protozoan causing Chagas disease, African Trypanosomiasis and Leishmaniases worldwide. They are vector borne diseases transmitted by triatomine bugs, Tsetse fly, and sand flies, respectively. Those diseases cause enormous economic losses and morbidity affecting not only rural and poverty areas but are also spreading to urban areas. During the parasite-host interaction, those organisms release extracellular vesicles (EVs) that are crucial for the immunomodulatory events triggered by the parasites. EVs are involved in cell-cell communication and can act as important pro-inflammatory mediators. Therefore, interface between EVs and host immune responses are crucial for the immunopathological events that those diseases exhibit. Additionally, EVs from these organisms have a role in the invertebrate hosts digestive tracts prior to parasite transmission. This review summarizes the available data on how EVs from those medically important trypanosomatids affect their interaction with vertebrate and invertebrate hosts.

The tetraspanin CD151 marks a unique population of activated human T cells

Tetraspanins are a family of proteins with an array of functions that are well studied in cancer biology, but their importance in immunology is underappreciated. Here we establish the tetraspanin CD151 as a unique marker of T-cell activation and, in extension, an indicator of elevated, systemic T-cell activity. Baseline CD151 expression found on a subset of T-cells was indicative of increased activation of the MAPK pathway. Following TCR/CD3 activation, CD151 expression was upregulated on the overall T-cell population, a quintessential feature of an activation marker. CD151+ T-cell frequencies in the spleen, an organ with increased immune activity, were twice as high as in paired peripheral blood samples. This CD151+ T-cell frequency increase was not paralleled by an increase of CD25 or CD38, demonstrating that CD151 expression is regulated independently of other T-cell activation markers. CD151+ T-cells were also more likely to express preformed granzyme B, suggesting that CD151+ T cells are pro-inflammatory. To this end, HIV-1 patients on antiretroviral therapy who are reported to exhibit chronically elevated levels of immune activity, had significantly higher CD4+CD151+ T-cell frequencies than healthy controls, raising the possibility that proinflammatory CD151+ T cells could contribute to the premature immunological aging phenotype observed in these patients.

Migrasome and Tetraspanins in Vascular Homeostasis: Concept, Present, and Future

Cell migration plays a critical role in vascular homeostasis. Under noxious stimuli, endothelial cells (ECs) migration always contributes to vascular repair, while enhanced migration of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) will lead to pathological vascular remodeling. Moreover, vascular activities are involved in communication between ECs and VSMCs, between ECs and immune cells, et al. Recently, Ma et al. (2015) discovered a novel migration-dependent organelle “migrasome,” which mediated release of cytoplasmic contents, and this process was defined as “migracytosis.” The formation of migrasome is precisely regulated by tetraspanins (TSPANs), cholesterol and integrins. Migrasomes can be taken up by neighboring cells, and migrasomes are distributed in many kinds of cells and tissues, such as in blood vessel, human serum, and in ischemic brain of human and mouse. In addition, the migrasome elements TSPANs are wildly expressed in cardiovascular system. Therefore, TSPANs, migrasomes and migracytosis might play essential roles in regulating vascular homeostasis. In this review, we will discuss the discoveries of migration-dependent migrasome and migracytosis, migrasome formation, the basic differences between migrasomes and exosomes, the distributions and functions of migrasome, the functions of migrasome elements TSPANs in vascular biology, and discuss the possible roles of migrasomes and migracytosis in vascular homeostasis.

Membrane Compartmentalization and Scaffold Proteins in Leukocyte Migration

Leukocyte migration across vessels into and within peripheral and lymphoid tissues is essential for host defense against invading pathogens. Leukocytes are specialized in sensing a variety of guidance cues and to integrate environmental stimuli to navigate in a timely and spatially controlled manner. These extracellular signals must be transmitted across the leukocyte’s plasma membrane in a way that intracellular signaling cascades enable directional cell movement. Therefore, the composition of the membrane in concert with proteins that influence the compartmentalization of the plasma membrane or contribute to delineate intracellular signaling molecules are key in controlling leukocyte navigation. This becomes evident by the fact that mislocalization of membrane proteins is known to deleteriously affect cellular functions that may cause diseases. In this review we summarize recent advances made in the understanding of how membrane cholesterol levels modulate chemokine receptor signaling and hence leukocyte trafficking. Moreover, we provide an overview on the role of membrane scaffold proteins, particularly tetraspanins, flotillins/reggies, and caveolins in controlling leukocyte migration both in vitro and in vivo.

TSPAN8 as a Novel Emerging Therapeutic Target in Cancer for Monoclonal Antibody Therapy

Tetraspanin 8 (TSPAN8) is a member of the tetraspanin superfamily that forms TSPAN8-mediated protein complexes by interacting with themselves and other various cellular signaling molecules. These protein complexes help build tetraspanin-enriched microdomains (TEMs) that efficiently mediate intracellular signal transduction. In physiological conditions, TSPAN8 plays a vital role in the regulation of biological functions, including leukocyte trafficking, angiogenesis and wound repair. Recently, reports have increasingly shown the functional role and clinical relevance of TSPAN8 overexpression in the progression and metastasis of several cancers. In this review, we will highlight the physiological and pathophysiological roles of TSPAN8 in normal and cancer cells. Additionally, we will cover the current status of monoclonal antibodies specifically targeting TSPAN8 and the importance of TSPAN8 as an emerging therapeutic target in cancers for monoclonal antibody therapy.

CD151 in Respiratory Diseases

The tetraspanin, Cluster of Differentiation 151 (CD151), is ubiquitously expressed in adult tissue, especially in the lungs where it has been implicated in lung cancer, asthma, influenza, and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). CD151 interacts with laminin-binding integrins and growth factor receptors, and is reported in cancer-promoting processes such as tumor initiation, metastasis, and angiogenesis. In asthma, CD151 was shown to promote airways hyperresponsiveness through calcium signaling whereas in influenza, CD151 was shown to be a novel host factor for nuclear viral export signaling. Furthermore, CD151 was shown to be associated with increased disease severity and poorer survival outcome in asthma and lung cancer, respectively. In this review, we provide an update on the current understanding of CD151 with regards to its contribution to lung pathophysiology. We also summarize factors that have been shown to regulate CD151 expression and identify key areas that need to be taken into consideration for its utility as a screening or prognostic tool in disease management and/or as a therapeutic target for the treatment of lung diseases.

Parallels between wound healing, epimorphic regeneration and solid tumors

Striking similarities between wound healing, epimorphic regeneration and the progression of solid tumors have been uncovered by recent studies. In this Review, we discuss systemic effects of tumorigenesis that are now being appreciated in epimorphic regeneration, including genetic, cellular and metabolic heterogeneity, changes in circulating factors, and the complex roles of immune cells and immune modulation at systemic and local levels. We suggest that certain mechanisms enabling regeneration may be co-opted by cancer to promote growth at primary and metastatic sites. Finally, we advocate that working with a unified approach could complement research in both fields.

Deletion of tetraspanin CD151 alters the Wnt oncogene-induced mammary tumorigenesis: A cell type-linked function and signaling

Tetraspanin CD151 is increasingly implicated as a multifaceted mediator of cancer development and progression. Here we investigated the role of CD151 in breast cancer in the context of the Wnt oncogenic activation. Our data showed that removal of one or both of CD151 alleles in the MMTV-Wnt1 model significantly decreased the tumor-free survival of mice from 34 weeks on average to 22 weeks and 18 weeks, respectively. This effect coincided with an accelerated tumor growth and an increased number of Ki-67⁺ proliferative cells. Mechanistically, the CD151-deficient tumors were largely ER⁺, and exhibited hyperactivation of the Wnt pathway as reflected by a marked upregulation in β-catenin and Cyclin D1, and their target genes. In addition, E-cadherin displayed a cytosolic distribution and transcription factor Snail was markedly upregulated. Collectively, this data implies that CD151 suppresses the Wnt1-driven tumorigenesis, at least in part, via counteracting the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT)-like program in luminal epithelial cells. Meanwhile, the proportion of tumor cells expressing CK5 or p63, the biomarkers of myoepithelial/basal cells, markedly decreased in the absence of CD151. This change was accompanied by a decreased invasiveness of tumors and their incompetence to form a long-term cell culture. Consistent with this basal cell-linked role, the CD151 downregulation impairs mammosphere formation in MCF-10A cells and the defect was rescued by re-expression of intact CD151 ORF, but not its integrin binding-defective mutant. Overall, our study suggests that CD151 is a key player in the Wnt oncogene-driven tumorigenesis and impacts breast cancer malignancy in a cell type-dependent manner.

High Yield Expression of Recombinant CD151 in E. coli and a Structural Insight into Cholesterol Binding Domain

CD151 is an abundantly expressed eukaryotic transmembrane protein on the cell surface. It is involved in cell adhesion, angiogenesis and signal transduction as well in disease conditions such as cancer and viral infections. However, the molecular mechanism of CD151 activation is poorly understood due to the lack of structural information. By considering the difficulties in expressing the membrane protein in E. coli, herein we introduce the strategic design for the effective expression of recombinant CD151 protein in E. coli with high yield, that would aid for the structural studies. CD151 having four transmembrane domain (TMD's) along with small and a large extracellular loop (LEL) is constructed in parts to enhance the soluble expression of the protein attached with fusion tag. This has led to the high yield of the recombinant CD151 protein in the designed constructs. The recombinant CD151 protein is characterized and confirmed by western blot, CD and Mass peptide fingerprint. The molecular dynamics simulations (MDS) for the full-length CD151 shows conformational changes in the LEL of the protein in the presence and absence of cholesterol and indicate the certainty of closed and open conformation of CD151 based on cholesterol binding. The MDS results have led to the understanding of the possible underlying mechanism for the activation of the CD151 protein.

[The role of exosomal tetraspanins and proteases in tumor progression]

Major (CD9, CD63, CD81) and others (CD82, CD151, Tspan8) tetraspanins are widely represented in exosomes, where they interact with various proteins and form functional tetraspanin complexes. Tetraspanin complexes include proteases. Tetraspanin-associated exosomal proteases (ADAM proteases, MMPs, EMMPRIN) play an important role in the processes of cell motility, migration, invasion and formation of metastases. Also, a significant contribution to tumor progression is made by proteases that are not associated with tetraspanins. They destabilize intercellular contacts, promote migration and invasion of tumor cells, participate in the regulation of the expression IGF-I, VEGF and transcription factors activation/deactivation. The role of other proteases of exosomes in the processes of tumor progression is being clarified.

Integrin-independent support of cancer drug resistance by tetraspanin CD151

Tetraspanin protein CD151 has typically been studied as binding partner and functional regulator of laminin-binding integrins. However, we show here that CD151 supports anti-cancer drug resistance independent of integrins. CD151 ablation sensitized multiple tumor cell types to several anti-cancer drugs (e.g., gefitinib and camptothecin), thus increasing apoptosis, as seen using cleaved caspase-3, cleaved PARP (poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase), annexin V, and propidium iodide staining assays. Drug sensitization due to CD151 ablation is integrin-independent, because, (1) effects occurred in cells when integrins were unengaged with ligand, (2) integrin ablation (α3 and α6 subunits) did not mimic effects of CD151 ablation, (3) the CD151^QRD mutant, with diminished integrin association, and CD151^WT (unmutated CD151) similarly reconstituted drug protection, and (4) treatment with anti-cancer drugs selectively upregulated intracellular nonintegrin-associated CD151 (NIA-CD151), consistent with its role in drug resistance. Together, these results suggest that upregulated CD151 expression may support not only typical integrin-dependent functions, but also integrin-independent survival of circulating (and possibly metastatic) cancer cells during anti-cancer drug therapy.

Tspan8 and Tspan8/CD151 knockout mice unravel the contribution of tumor and host exosomes to tumor progression

BACKGROUND

The tetraspanins Tspan8 and CD151 promote metastasis, exosomes (Exo) being suggested to be important in the crosstalk between tumor and host. The contribution of Tspan8 and CD151 to host versus tumor-derived exosome (TEX) activities being not defined, we approached the questions using 3-methylcholanthrene-induced (MCA) tumors from wt, Tspan8ko, CD151ko and Tspan8/CD151 (db)ko mice, implanted into tetraspanin-competent and deficient hosts.

METHODS

Tumor growth and dissemination, hematopoiesis and angiogenesis were surveyed in wild type (wt), Tspan8ko, CD151ko and dbko mice bearing tetraspanin-competent and -deficient MCA tumors. In vitro studies using tumor cells, bone marrow cells (BMC) and endothelial cells (EC) elaborated the mechanism of serum (s)Exo- and TEX-induced target modulation.

RESULTS

Tumors grew in autochthonous and syngeneic hosts differing in Tspan8- and/or CD151-competence. However, Tspan8ko- and/or CD151ko-tumor cell dissemination and settlement in metastatic organs was significantly reduced in the autochthonous host, and less severely in the wt-host. Impaired wt-MCA tumor dissemination in the ko-host confirmed a contribution of host- and tumor-Tspan8/-CD151 to tumor cell dissemination, delivery of sExo and TEX being severely impaired by a Tspan8ko/CD151ko. Coculturing tumor cells, BMC and EC with sExo and TEX revealed minor defects in epithelial mesenchymal transition and apoptosis resistance of ko tumors. Strongly reduced migratory and invasive capacity of Tspan8ko/CD151ko-MCA relies on distorted associations with integrins and CAM and missing Tspan8/CD151-promoted recruitment of proteases. The defects, differing between Tspan8ko- and CD151ko-MCA, were rescued by wt-TEX and, less efficiently Tspan8ko- and CD151ko-TEX. Minor defects in hematopoietic progenitor maturation were based on the missing association of hematopoietic growth factors /- receptors with CD151 and, less pronounced, Tspan8. Rescue of impaired angiogenesis in ko mice by wt-sExo and promotion of angiogenesis by TEX depended on the association of Tspan8 and CD151 with GPCR and RTK in EC and tumor cells.

CONCLUSIONS

Tspan8-/CD151-TEX play central roles in tumor progression. Tspan8-/CD151-sExo and TEX contribute by stimulating angiogenesis. Tspan8 and CD151 fulfill these tasks by associating with function-relevant proteins, the additive impact of Tspan8 and CD151 relying on differences in preferred associations. The distinct Tspan8 and CD151 contributions suggest a blockade of TEX-Tspan8 and -CD151 promising for therapeutic intervention.

CD151 promotes proliferation and migration of SK-NEP-1 cells via the GSK-3β/P21/cyclinD signaling pathway

Wilms'tumor is the most common malignant tumor with a poor clinical prognosis because of metastasis or recurrence among children worldwide. CD151, a member of transmembrane 4 superfamily, has now been confirmed to be involved in tumor progression including the proliferation, migration, invasion and metastasis of tumor cells. GSK-3β/P21/cyclinD signaling pathway plays a critical role in the cell cycle progression, regulating cellular proliferation. In this study, CD151 protein and mRNA levels were examined by western blot and RT-PCR. The proliferation of SK-NEP-1 cells was examined by CCK8 assay and the migration of SK-NEP-1 cells was detected with wound healing assay. Furthermore, p-GSK3β protein, GSK3β protein, p21protein and CyclinD protein were examined by western blot to verify whether CD151 could regulate the Wilms'tumor progression via the GSK-3β/P21/cyclinD signaling pathway. The RT-PCR and western blot results showed that CD151 protein was upregulated in Wilms'tumor cells compared with the control. The results by CCK8 assay and wound healing assay demonstrated that CD151 overexpression promoted the proliferation and migration in SK-NEP-1 cells and CD151 interference showed the opposite effects. Western blot assay revealed that CD151 activated the GSK-3β/P21/cyclinD signaling pathway and upregulated the expression of p-GSK3β protein, p21protein and CyclinD protein. It was also verified that CD151 promotes proliferation and migration of SK-NEP-1 cells through the GSK-3β/P21/cyclinD signaling pathway in this study. The specific aim of the study is to investigate and verify the role of CD151 in Wilm's tumor. Therefore, in-depth study on the molecular mechanisms will provide new strategies and methods for the treatment of Wilm's tumor.

CD151 regulates expression of FGFR2 in breast cancer cells via PKC-dependent pathways

Expression of the tetraspanin CD151 is frequently upregulated in epithelial malignancies and correlates with poor prognosis. Here, we report that CD151 is involved in regulation of the expression of fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 (FGFR2). Depletion of CD151 in breast cancer cells resulted in an increased level of FGFR2. Accordingly, an inverse correlation between CD151 and FGFR2 was observed in breast cancer tissues. CD151-dependent regulation of the FGFR2 expression relies on post-transcriptional mechanisms involving HuR (also known as ELAVL1), a multifunctional RNA-binding protein, and the assembly of processing bodies (P-bodies). Depletion of CD151 correlated with inhibition of PKC, a well-established downstream target of CD151. Accordingly, the levels of dialcylglycerol species were decreased in CD151-negative cells, and inhibition of PKC resulted in the increased expression of FGFR2. Whereas expression of FGFR2 itself did not correlate with any of the clinicopathological data, we found that FGFR2-/CD151+ patients were more likely to have developed lymph node metastasis. Conversely, FGFR2-/CD151- patients demonstrated better overall survival. These results illustrate functional interdependency between CD151 complexes and FGFR2, and suggest a previously unsuspected role of CD151 in breast tumorigenesis.

Immune Targeting of Tetraspanins Involved in Cell Invasion and Metastasis

Metastasis is the ultimate consequence of cancer progression and the cause of patients’ death across different cancer types. Patients with initial diagnosis of distant disease have a worst 5-year survival compared to patients with localized disease. Therapies that target primary tumors fail to eradicate distant dissemination of cancer. Recently, immunotherapies have improved the survival of patients with metastatic disease, such as melanoma and lung cancer. However, only a fraction of patients responds to immunotherapy modalities that target the host immune system. The need to identify new druggable targets that inhibit or prevent metastasis is, therefore, much needed. Tetraspanins have emerged as key players in regulating cell migration, invasion, and metastasis. By serving as molecular adaptors that cluster adhesion receptors, signaling molecules, and cell surface receptors; tetraspanins are involved in all steps of the metastatic cascade. They regulate cell proliferation, participate in EMT transition, modulate integrin-mediated cell adhesion, and participate in angiogenesis and invasion processes. Tetraspanins have also been shown to modulate metastasis indirectly through exosomes and by regulating cellular interactions in the immune system. Importantly, targeting individual tetraspanin with antibodies has impacted tumor progression. This review will focus on the contribution of tetraspanins to the metastatic process and their potential as therapeutic tumor targets.

PKC Dependent p14ARF Phosphorylation on Threonine 8 Drives Cell Proliferation

ARF role as tumor suppressor has been challenged in the last years by several findings of different groups ultimately showing that its functions can be strictly context dependent. We previously showed that ARF loss in HeLa cells induces spreading defects, evident as rounded morphology of depleted cells, accompanied by a decrease of phosphorylated Focal Adhesion Kinase (FAK) protein levels and anoikis. These data, together with previous finding that a PKC dependent signalling pathway can lead to ARF stabilization, led us to the hypothesis that ARF functions in cell proliferation might be regulated by phosphorylation. In line with this, we show here that upon spreading ARF is induced through PKC activation. A constitutive-phosphorylated ARF mutant on the conserved threonine 8 (T8D) is able to mediate both cell spreading and FAK activation. Finally, ARF-T8D expression confers growth advantage to cells thus leading to the intriguing hypothesis that ARF phosphorylation could be a mechanism through which pro-proliferative or anti proliferative signals could be transduced inside the cells in both physiological and pathological conditions.

Non Melanoma Skin Cancer Pathogenesis Overview

(1) Background: Non-melanoma skin cancer is the most frequently diagnosed cancer in humans. The process of skin carcinogenesis is still not fully understood. However, several studies have been conducted to better explain the mechanisms that lead to malignancy; (2) Methods: We reviewed the more recent literature about the pathogenesis of non-melanoma skin cancer focusing on basal cell carcinomas, squamous cell carcinoma and actinic keratosis; (3) Results: Several papers reported genetic and molecular alterations leading to non-melanoma skin cancer. Plenty of risk factors are involved in non-melanoma skin cancer pathogenesis, including genetic and molecular alterations, immunosuppression, and ultraviolet radiation; (4) Conclusion: Although skin carcinogenesis is still not fully understood, several papers demonstrated that genetic and molecular alterations are involved in this process. In addition, plenty of non-melanoma skin cancer risk factors are now known, allowing for an effective prevention of non-melanoma skin cancer development. Compared to other papers on the same topic, our review focused on molecular and genetic factors and analyzed in detail several factors involved in non-melanoma skin cancer.

PIK3C2A mRNA functions as a miR-124 sponge to facilitate CD151 expression and enhance malignancy of hepatocellular carcinoma cells

Competing endogenous RNAs (ceRNAs) are RNA transcripts that can crosstalk with each other by competing for shared microRNAs (miRNAs) through miRNA response elements (MREs). Involved in ceRNA networks, the RNA transcripts may be in a balance, disruption of which could lead to tumorigenesis. Here we reveal a ceRNA interaction between PIK3C2A and CD151 mRNAs in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells. PIK3C2A is a candidate ceRNA of CD151 because mRNA 3' untranslated regions (3'UTRs) of these two genes contain miR-124 binding sites. miR-124 is downregulated, while PIK3C2A and CD151 are upregulated in HCC cells compared with normal hepatocytes. Direct and negative regulation of PIK3C2A and CD151 by miR-124 was confirmed in HCC cells. miR-124 and the two potential ceRNAs are all recruited to the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC). In HCC cell lines QGY- 7703 and SMMC-7721, and normal hepatic cell line HL-7702, miR-124 plays a tumor suppressor role by targeting PIK3C2A and CD151. The MREs within PIK3C2A 3'UTR can independently stimulate CD151 expression level by acting as miR-124 decoys. PIK3C2A MREs enhance HCC cell malignancy by absorbing endogenous miR-124 and activating CD151 in HCC cells. We conclude that PIK3C2A 3'UTR functions as a trans activator to stimulate CD151 by competing for miR-124 binding in HCC cells. The collaboration of PIK3C2A and CD151 through ceRNA mechanism may be implicated in HCC initiation and development.

Exosomal tetraspanins mediate cancer metastasis by altering host microenvironment

The metastases of malignant tumors develop through a cascade of events. The establishment of a pre-metastatic micro-environment is initiated by communication between tumors and host. Exosomes come into focus as the most potent intercellular communicators playing a pivotal role in this process. Cancer cells release exosomes into the extracellular environment prior to metastasis. Tetraspanin is a type of 4 times transmembrane proteins. It may be involved in cell motility, adhesion, morphogenesis, as well as cell and vesicular membrane fusion. The exosomal tetraspanin network is a molecular scaffold connecting various proteins for signaling transduction. The complex of tetraspanin-integrin determines the recruiting cancer exosomes to pre-metastatic sites. Tetraspanin is a key element for the target cell selection of exosomes uptake that may lead to the reprogramming of target cells. Reprogrammed target cells assist pre-metastatic niche formation. Previous reviews have described the biogenesis, secretion and intercellular interaction of exosomes in various tumors. However, there is a lack of reviews on the topic of exosomal tetraspanin in the context of cancer. In this review, we will describe the main characteristics of exosomal tetraspanin in cancer cells. We will also discuss how the cancer exosomal tetraspanin alters extracellular environment and regulates cancer metastasis.

Tetraspanin microdomains control localized protein kinase C signaling in B cells

Activation of B cells by the binding of antigens to the B cell receptor (BCR) requires the protein kinase C (PKC) family member PKCβ. Because PKCs must translocate to the plasma membrane to become activated, we investigated the mechanisms regulating their spatial distribution in mouse and human B cells. Through live-cell imaging, we showed that BCR-stimulated production of the second messenger diacylglycerol (DAG) resulted in the translocation of PKCβ from the cytosol to plasma membrane regions containing the tetraspanin protein CD53. CD53 was specifically enriched at sites of BCR signaling, suggesting that BCR-dependent PKC signaling was initiated at these tetraspanin microdomains. Fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy studies confirmed the molecular recruitment of PKC to CD53-containing microdomains, which required the amino terminus of CD53. Furthermore, we showed that Cd53-deficient B cells were defective in the phosphorylation of PKC substrates. Consistent with this finding, PKC recruitment to the plasma membrane was impaired in both mouse and human CD53-deficient B cells compared to that in their wild-type counterparts. These data suggest that CD53 promotes BCR-dependent PKC signaling by recruiting PKC to the plasma membrane so that it can phosphorylate its substrates and that tetraspanin-containing microdomains can act as signaling hotspots in the plasma membrane.

Joint features and complementarities of Tspan8 and CD151 revealed in knockdown and knockout models

Tetraspanins are highly conserved 4-transmembrane proteins which form molecular clusters with a large variety of transmembrane and cytosolic proteins. By these associations tetraspanins are engaged in a multitude of biological processes. Furthermore, tetraspanin complexes are located in specialized microdomains, called tetraspanin-enriched microdomains (TEMs). TEMs provide a signaling platform and are poised for invagination and vesicle formation. These vesicles can be released as exosomes (Exo) and are important in cell contact-independent intercellular communication. Here, we summarize emphasizing knockdown and knockout models' pathophysiological joint and selective activities of CD151 and Tspan8, and discuss the TEM-related engagement of CD151 and Tspan8 in Exo activities.

Tspan2: a tetraspanin protein involved in oligodendrogenesis and cancer metastasis

Tetraspanin 2 (Tspan2) is one of the less well-characterised members of the tetraspanin superfamily, and its precise function in different human tissue types remains to be explored. Initial studies have highlighted its possible association in neuroinflammation and carcinogenesis. In the central nervous system, Tspan2 may contribute to the early stages of the oligodendrocyte differentiation into myelin-forming glia. Furthermore, in human lung cancer, Tspan2 could be involved in the progression of the tumour metastasis by modulating cancer cell motility and invasion functions. In this review, we discuss the available evidence for the potential role of Tspan2 and introduce possible strategies for disease targeting.

Tetraspanins Function as Regulators of Cellular Signaling

Tetraspanins are molecular scaffolds that distribute proteins into highly organized microdomains consisting of adhesion, signaling, and adaptor proteins. Many reports have identified interactions between tetraspanins and signaling molecules, finding unique downstream cellular consequences. In this review, we will explore these interactions as well as the specific cellular responses to signal activation, focusing on tetraspanin regulation of adhesion-mediated (integrins/FAK), receptor-mediated (EGFR, TNF-α, c-Met, c-Kit), and intracellular signaling (PKC, PI4K, β-catenin). Additionally, we will summarize our current understanding for how tetraspanin post-translational modifications (palmitoylation, N-linked glycosylation, and ubiquitination) can regulate signal propagation. Many of the studies outlined in this review suggest that tetraspanins offer a potential therapeutic target to modulate aberrant signal transduction pathways that directly impact a host of cellular behaviors and disease states.

From Normal Skin to Squamous Cell Carcinoma: A Quest for Novel Biomarkers

Squamous cells carcinoma (SCC) is the second most frequent of the keratinocyte-derived malignancies after basal cell carcinoma and is associated with a significant psychosocial and economic burden for both the patient himself and society. Reported risk factors for the malignant transformation of keratinocytes and development of SCC include ultraviolet light exposure, followed by chronic scarring and inflammation, exposure to chemical compounds (arsenic, insecticides, and pesticides), and immune-suppression. Despite various available treatment methods and recent advances in noninvasive or minimal invasive diagnostic techniques, the risk recurrence and metastasis are far from being negligible, even in patients with negative histological margins and lymph nodes. Analyzing normal, dysplastic, and malignant keratinocyte proteome holds special promise for novel biomarker discovery in SCC that could be used in the future for early detection, risk assessment, tumor monitoring, and development of targeted therapeutic strategies.

CD151 expression is frequent but unrelated to clinical outcome in head and neck cancer

OBJECTIVES

CD151 is a plasma membrane protein belonging to the tetraspanin family. CD151 represents a putative therapeutic target and has been suggested as a prognostic marker in several cancer types. The present study aims to investigate the prognostic relevance of immunohistochemical CD151 expression in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Tissue microarray (TMA) sections containing samples from 667 cancers of oral cavity, oro- and hypopharynx and larynx, for which follow-up data were available, were analyzed for CD151 expression by immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

Membranous CD151 immunostaining was recorded in 269 (60.3 %) of 446 analyzable cases. Staining was considered weak in 129 (28.9 %), moderate in 98 (22.0 %), and strong in 42 (9.4 %) of cancers. CD151 expression was unrelated to histological grade, tumor stage, nodal status, or surgical margin. There was a tendency towards a somewhat lower prevalence of CD151 expression in tumors of the oral cavity (52.9 % positive) as compared to cancers of the oro-hypopharynx (62.1 %) and larynx (63.3 %; p = 0.0100). CD151 expression had no impact on patient survival.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

In summary, immunohistochemical analysis of CD151 lacks prognostic utility in HNSCC. The high prevalence of CD151 expression in HNSCC emphasizes its putative relevance as a therapeutic target for further development of anti-CD151 drugs.

Tetraspanin CD82 Regulates the Spatiotemporal Dynamics of PKCα in Acute Myeloid Leukemia

Patients with acute myeloid leukemia (AML) have increased myeloid cells within their bone marrow that exhibit aberrant signaling. Therefore, therapeutic targets that modulate disrupted signaling cascades are of significant interest. In this study, we demonstrate that the tetraspanin membrane scaffold, CD82, regulates protein kinase c alpha (PKCα)-mediated signaling critical for AML progression. Utilizing a palmitoylation mutant form of CD82 with disrupted membrane organization, we find that the CD82 scaffold controls PKCα expression and activation. Combining single molecule and ensemble imaging measurements, we determine that CD82 stabilizes PKCα activation at the membrane and regulates the size of PKCα membrane clusters. Further evaluation of downstream effector signaling identified robust and sustained activation of ERK1/2 upon CD82 overexpression that results in enhanced AML colony formation. Together, these data propose a mechanism where CD82 membrane organization regulates sustained PKCα signaling that results in an aggressive leukemia phenotype. These observations suggest that the CD82 scaffold may be a potential therapeutic target for attenuating aberrant signal transduction in AML.

Chemically induced skin carcinogenesis: Updates in experimental models (Review)

Skin cancer is one of the most common malignancies affecting humans worldwide, and its incidence is rapidly increasing. The study of skin carcinogenesis is of major interest for both scientific research and clinical practice and the use of in vivo systems may facilitate the investigation of early alterations in the skin and of the mechanisms involved, and may also lead to the development of novel therapeutic strategies for skin cancer. This review outlines several aspects regarding the skin toxicity testing domain in mouse models of chemically induced skin carcinogenesis. There are important strain differences in view of the histological type, development and clinical evolution of the skin tumor, differences reported decades ago and confirmed by our hands‑on experience. Using mouse models in preclinical testing is important due to the fact that, at the molecular level, common mechanisms with human cutaneous tumorigenesis are depicted. These animal models resemble human skin cancer development, in that genetic changes caused by carcinogens and pro‑inflammatory cytokines, and simultaneous inflammation sustained by pro‑inflammatory cytokines and chemokines favor tumor progression. Drugs and environmental conditions can be tested using these animal models. keeping in mind the differences between human and rodent skin physiology.

[Tetraspanins in cutaneous physiopathology]

Tetraspanins are transmembrane proteins that interact laterally with each other and with different partners such as integrins, immunoglobulin (Ig)-domain-containing proteins, growth factors and cytokine receptors. Such tetraspanin-partner complexes help to organize dynamic membrane networks called "tetraspanin web", which trigger different signalling pathways. Despite the fact that tetraspanins seem abundantly and widely expressed, their function remained unclear. However, it is well established that they control fundamental cellular processes including cell survival, adhesion, migration, invasion or viral infection, but the underlying molecular mechanisms are not well elucidated. This review focuses on tetraspanins that are expressed in epidermis and the roles they play in normal and pathological conditions, specifically in skin cancer.

CD151 promotes α3β1 integrin-dependent organization of carcinoma cell junctions and restrains collective cell invasion

Integrins function in collective migration both as major receptors for extracellular matrix and by crosstalk to adherens junctions. Despite extensive research, important questions remain about how integrin signaling mechanisms are integrated into collective migration programs. Tetraspanins form cell surface complexes with a subset of integrins and thus are good candidates for regulating the balance of integrin functional inputs into cell-matrix and cell-cell interactions. For example, tetraspanin CD151 directly associates with α3β1 integrin in carcinoma cells and promotes rapid α3β1-dependent single cell motility, but CD151 also promotes organized adherens junctions and restrains collective carcinoma cell migration on 2D substrates. However, the individual roles of CD151s integrin partners in CD151s pro-junction activity in carcinoma cells were not well understood. Here we find that CD151 promotes organized carcinoma cell junctions via α3β1 integrin, by a mechanism that requires the a3b1 ligand, laminin-332. Loss of CD151 promotes collective 3D invasion and growth in vitro and in vivo, and the enhanced invasion of CD151-silenced cells is α3 integrin dependent, suggesting that CD151 can regulate the balance between α3β1s pro-junction and pro-migratory activities in collective invasion. An analysis of human cancer cases revealed that changes in CD151 expression can be linked to either better or worse clinical outcomes depending on context, including potentially divergent roles for CD151 in different subsets of breast cancer cases. Thus, the role of the CD151-α3β1 complex in carcinoma progression is context dependent, and may depend on the mode of tumor cell invasion.

Tetraspanin CD81 promotes tumor growth and metastasis by modulating the functions of T regulatory and myeloid-derived suppressor cells

Tumor cells counteract innate and adaptive antitumor immune responses by recruiting regulatory T cells (Treg) and innate myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC), which facilitate immune escape and metastatic dissemination. Here we report a role in these recruitment processes for CD81, a member of the tetraspanin family of proteins that have been implicated previously in cancer progression. We found that genetic deficiency in CD81 reduced tumor growth and metastasis in two genetic mouse backgrounds and multiple tumor models. Mechanistic investigations revealed that CD81 was not required for normal development of Treg and MDSC but was essential for immunosuppressive functions. Notably, adoptive transfer of wild-type Treg into CD81-deficient mice was sufficient to promote tumor growth and metastasis. Our findings suggested that CD81 modulates adaptive and innate immune responses, warranting further investigation of CD81 in immunomodulation in cancer and its progression.

Tetraspanins as regulators of the tumour microenvironment: implications for metastasis and therapeutic strategies

One of the hallmarks of cancer is the ability to activate invasion and metastasis. Cancer morbidity and mortality are largely related to the spread of the primary, localized tumour to adjacent and distant sites. Appropriate management and treatment decisions based on predicting metastatic disease at the time of diagnosis is thus crucial, which supports better understanding of the metastatic process. There are components of metastasis that are common to all primary tumours: dissociation from the primary tumour mass, reorganization/remodelling of extracellular matrix, cell migration, recognition and movement through endothelial cells and the vascular circulation and lodgement and proliferation within ectopic stroma. One of the key and initial events is the increased ability of cancer cells to move, escaping the regulation of normal physiological control. The cellular cytoskeleton plays an important role in cancer cell motility and active cytoskeletal rearrangement can result in metastatic disease. This active change in cytoskeletal dynamics results in manipulation of plasma membrane and cellular balance between cellular adhesion and motility which in turn determines cancer cell movement. Members of the tetraspanin family of proteins play important roles in regulation of cancer cell migration and cancer-endothelial cell interactions, which are critical for cancer invasion and metastasis. Their involvements in active cytoskeletal dynamics, cancer metastasis and potential clinical application will be discussed in this review. In particular, the tetraspanin member, CD151, is highlighted for its major role in cancer invasion and metastasis.

LINKED ARTICLES

This article is part of a themed section on Cytoskeleton, Extracellular Matrix, Cell Migration, Wound Healing and Related Topics. To view the other articles in this section visit http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/bph.2014.171.issue-24.

Epidermal Basement Membrane in Health and Disease

Skin, as the organ protecting the individual from environmental aggressions, constantly meets external insults and is dependent on mechanical toughness for its preserved function. Accordingly, the epidermal basement membrane (BM) zone has adapted to enforce tissue integrity. It harbors anchoring structures created through unique organization of common BM components and expression of proteins exclusive to the epidermal BM zone. Evidence for the importance of its correct assembly and the nonredundancy of its components for skin integrity is apparent from the multiple skin blistering disorders caused by mutations in genes coding for proteins associated with the epidermal BM and from autoimmune disorders in which autoantibodies target these molecules. However, it has become clear that these proteins not only provide mechanical support but are also critically involved in tissue homeostasis, repair, and regeneration. In this chapter, we provide an overview of the unique organization and components of the epidermal BM. A special focus will be given to its function during regeneration, and in inherited and acquired diseases.

Molecular architecture and function of the hemidesmosome

Hemidesmosomes are multiprotein complexes that facilitate the stable adhesion of basal epithelial cells to the underlying basement membrane. The mechanical stability of hemidesmosomes relies on multiple interactions of a few protein components that form a membrane-embedded tightly-ordered complex. The core of this complex is provided by integrin α6β4 and P1a, an isoform of the cytoskeletal linker protein plectin that is specifically associated with hemidesmosomes. Integrin α6β4 binds to the extracellular matrix protein laminin-332, whereas P1a forms a bridge to the cytoplasmic keratin intermediate filament network. Other important components are BPAG1e, the epithelial isoform of bullous pemphigoid antigen 1, BPAG2, a collagen-type transmembrane protein and CD151. Inherited or acquired diseases in which essential components of the hemidesmosome are missing or structurally altered result in tissue fragility and blistering. Modulation of hemidesmosome function is of crucial importance for a variety of biological processes, such as terminal differentiation of basal keratinocytes and keratinocyte migration during wound healing and carcinoma invasion. Here, we review the molecular characteristics of the proteins that make up the hemidesmosome core structure and summarize the current knowledge about how their assembly and turnover are regulated by transcriptional and post-translational mechanisms.

CD151-A Striking Marker for Cancer Therapy

Cluster of differentiation 151 (CD151) is a member of the mammalian tetraspanin family, which is involved in diverse functions such as maintaining normal cellular integrity, cell-to-cell communication, wound healing, platelet aggregation, trafficking, cell motility and angiogenesis. CD151 also supports de novo carcinogenesis in human skin squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) and tumor metastasis. CD151 interacts with α3β1 and α6β4 integrins through palmitoylation where cysteine plays an important role in the association of CD151 with integrins and non-integrin proteins. Invasion and metastasis of cancer cells were diminished by decreasing CD151 association with integrins. CD151 functions at various stages of cancer, including metastatic cascade and primary tumor growth, thus reinforcing the importance of CD151 as a target in oncology. The present review highlights the role of CD151 in tumor metastasis and its importance in cancer therapy.

Keratins Stabilize Hemidesmosomes through Regulation of β4-Integrin Turnover

Epidermal integrity and wound healing depend on remodeling of cell-matrix contacts including hemidesmosomes. Mutations in β4-integrin and plectin lead to severe epidermolysis bullosa (EB). Whether mutations in keratins K5 or K14, which cause EB simplex, also compromise cell-matrix adhesion through altering hemidesmosomal components is not well investigated. In particular, the dependence of β4-integrin endocytosis and turnover on keratins remains incompletely understood. Here, we show that the absence of keratins causes loss of plectin-β4-integrin interaction and elevated β4-integrin phosphorylation at Ser1354 and Ser1362. This triggered a caveolin-dependent endocytosis of β4-integrin but not of other integrins through Rab5 and Rab11 compartments in keratinocytes. Expressing a phospho-deficient β4-integrin mutant reduces β4-integrin endocytosis and rescues plectin localization in keratin-free cells. β4-integrin phosphorylation in the absence of keratins resulted from elevated Erk1/2 activity downstream of increased EGFR and PKCα signaling. Further, increased Erk1/2 phosphorylation and altered plectin localization occur in keratin-deficient mouse epidermis in vivo. Strikingly, expression of the K14-R125P EBS mutant also resulted in plectin mislocalization and elevated β4-integrin turnover, suggesting disease relevance. Our data underscore a major role of keratins in controlling β4-integrin endocytosis involving a plectin-Erk1/2-dependent mechanism relevant for epidermal differentiation and pathogenesis.

SYK interaction with ITGβ4 suppressed by Epstein-Barr virus LMP2A modulates migration and invasion of nasopharyngeal carcinoma cells

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-encoded Latent Membrane Protein 2A (LMP2A) is an EBV latency-associated protein regularly expressed in nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC). In B cells, LMP2A activity resembles that of a constitutively activated antigen receptor, which recruits the Syk tyrosine kinase to activate a set of downstream signaling pathways. LMP2A also downregulates cellular Syk levels. In the present study, we demonstrate that Syk interacts with the integrin β4 subunit (ITGβ4) of integrin α6β4 in epithelial cells and that concurrent LMP2A expression interferes with this interaction by competitive binding to Syk. We find that both Syk and LMP2A have an effect on ITGβ4 cell surface expression. However, in LMP2A expressing cells, ITGβ4 remains concentrated at the cellular protrusions, an expression pattern characteristic of motile cells, including NPC-derived epithelial cells. This effect of LMP2A on ITGβ4 localization is associated with a greater propensity for migration and invasion in-vitro, and may contribute to the invasive property of LMP2A-expressing NPC.

Molecular architecture and function of the hemidesmosome

Hemidesmosomes are multiprotein complexes that facilitate the stable adhesion of basal epithelial cells to the underlying basement membrane. The mechanical stability of hemidesmosomes relies on multiple interactions of a few protein components that form a membrane-embedded tightly-ordered complex. The core of this complex is provided by integrin α6β4 and P1a, an isoform of the cytoskeletal linker protein plectin that is specifically associated with hemidesmosomes. Integrin α6β4 binds to the extracellular matrix protein laminin-332, whereas P1a forms a bridge to the cytoplasmic keratin intermediate filament network. Other important components are BPAG1e, the epithelial isoform of bullous pemphigoid antigen 1, BPAG2, a collagen-type transmembrane protein and CD151. Inherited or acquired diseases in which essential components of the hemidesmosome are missing or structurally altered result in tissue fragility and blistering. Modulation of hemidesmosome function is of crucial importance for a variety of biological processes, such as terminal differentiation of basal keratinocytes and keratinocyte migration during wound healing and carcinoma invasion. Here, we review the molecular characteristics of the proteins that make up the hemidesmosome core structure and summarize the current knowledge about how their assembly and turnover are regulated by transcriptional and post-translational mechanisms.

Establishing the role of tyrosine kinase 2 in cancer

Tyrosine kinase 2 (TYK2) is a member of the Janus family of non-receptor tyrosine kinases involved in cytokine signaling. TYK2 deficiency is associated with increased susceptibility to mycobacterial and viral infections, hyper IgE syndrome as well as with allergic asthma. However the precise role of TYK2 in oncogenesis and tumor progression is not clear yet. Tyk2-deficient mice are prone to develop tumors because they lack efficient cytotoxic CD8⁺ T-cell antitumor responses as a result of deficient Type I interferon signaling. However, as TYK2 functions downstream of growth factor receptors that are often hyperactivated in cancer, inhibiting TYK2 might also have beneficial effects for cancer treatment.