Neutralizing antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 in symptomatic COVID-19 is persistent and critical for survival

Vitamin D supplementation and calcium: Many-faced gods or nobody in fighting against Corona Virus Disease 2019

In December 2019, Corona Virus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) was first identified and designated as a pandemic in March 2020 due to rapid spread of the virus globally. At the beginning of the pandemic, only a few treatment options, mainly focused on supportive care and repurposing medications, were available. Due to its effects on immune system, vitamin D was a topic of interest during the pandemic, and researchers investigated its potential impact on COVID-19 outcomes. However, the results of studies about the impact of vitamin D on the disease are inconclusive. In the present narrative review, different roles of vitamin D regarding the COVID-19 have been discussed to show that vitamin D supplementation should be recommended carefully.

Genetic barrier to resistance: a critical parameter for efficacy of neutralizing monoclonal antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 in a nonhuman primate model

The potency of antibody neutralization in cell culture has been used as the key criterion for selection of antibodies against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) for clinical development. As other aspects may also influence the degree of protection in vivo, we compared the efficacy of two neutralizing monoclonal antibodies (TRES6 and 4C12) targeting different epitopes of the receptor binding domain (RBD) of SARS-CoV-2 in a prophylactic setting in rhesus monkeys. All four animals treated with TRES6 had reduced viral loads in the upper respiratory tract 2 days after naso-oropharyngeal challenge with the Alpha SARS-CoV-2 variant. Starting 2 days after challenge, mutations conferring resistance to TRES6 were dominant in two of the rhesus monkeys, with both animals failing to maintain reduced viral loads. Consistent with its lower serum neutralization titer at the day of challenge, prophylaxis with 4C12 tended to suppress viral load at day 2 less efficiently than TRES6. However, a week after challenge, mean viral loads in the lower respiratory tract in 4C12-treated animals were lower than in the TRES6 group and no mutations conferring resistance to 4C12 could be detected in viral isolates from nasal or throat swabs. Thus, genetic barrier to resistance seems to be a critical parameter for the efficacy of prophylaxis with monoclonal antibodies against SARS-CoV-2. Furthermore, comparison of antibody concentrations in respiratory secretions to those in serum shows reduced distribution of the 4C12 antibody into respiratory secretions and a delay in the appearance of antibodies in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid compared to their appearance in secretions of the upper respiratory tract.IMPORTANCEMonoclonal antibodies are a powerful tool for the prophylaxis and treatment of acute viral infections. Hence, they were one of the first therapeutic agents licensed for the treatment of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Oftentimes, the main criterion for the selection of antibodies for clinical development is their potency of neutralization in cell culture. By comparing two antibodies targeting the Spike protein of SARS-CoV-2, we now observed that the antibody that neutralized SARS-CoV-2 more efficiently in cell culture suppressed viral load in challenged rhesus monkeys to a lesser extent. Extraordinary rapid emergence of mutants of the challenge virus, which had lost their sensitivity to the antibody, was identified as the major reason for the reduced efficacy of the antibody in rhesus monkeys. Therefore, the viral genetic barrier to resistance to antibodies also affects their efficacy.

Testing for SARS-CoV-2: lessons learned and current use cases

SUMMARYThe emergence and worldwide dissemination of SARS-CoV-2 required both urgent development of new diagnostic tests and expansion of diagnostic testing capacity on an unprecedented scale. The rapid evolution of technologies that allowed testing to move out of traditional laboratories and into point-of-care testing centers and the home transformed the diagnostic landscape. Four years later, with the end of the formal public health emergency but continued global circulation of the virus, it is important to take a fresh look at available SARS-CoV-2 testing technologies and consider how they should be used going forward. This review considers current use case scenarios for SARS-CoV-2 antigen, nucleic acid amplification, and immunologic tests, incorporating the latest evidence for analytical/clinical performance characteristics and advantages/limitations for each test type to inform current debates about how tests should or should not be used.

Metabolomic profiling of maternal plasma identifies inverse associations of acetate and urea with anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibody titers following COVID-19 vaccination during pregnancy

We conducted a comprehensive metabolomic analysis of plasma samples obtained from pregnant women who displayed varying post-vaccination antibody titers after receiving mRNA-1273-SARS-CoV-2 vaccines. The study involved 62 pregnant women, all of whom had been vaccinated after reaching 24 weeks of gestation. To quantify post-vaccination plasma antibody titers, we employed binding antibody units (BAU) in accordance with the World Health Organization International Standard. Subsequently, we classified the study participants into three distinct BAU/mL categories: those with high titers (above 2000), medium titers (ranging from 1000 to 2000), and low titers (below 1000). Plasma metabolomic profiling was conducted using 1H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, and the obtained data were correlated with the categorized antibody titers. Notably, in pregnant women exhibiting elevated anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibody titers, reduced plasma concentrations of acetate and urea were observed. A significant negative correlation between these compounds and antibody titers was also evident. An analysis of metabolomics pathways revealed significant inverse associations between antibody titers and four distinct amino acid metabolic pathways: (1) biosynthesis of phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan; (2) biosynthesis of valine, leucine, and isoleucine; (3) phenylalanine metabolism; and (4) degradation of valine, leucine, and isoleucine. Additionally, an association between the synthesis and degradation pathways of ketone bodies was evident. In conclusion, we identified different metabolic pathways that underlie the diverse humoral responses triggered by COVID-19 mRNA vaccines during pregnancy. Our data hold significant implications for refining COVID-19 vaccination approaches in expectant mothers. KEY MESSAGES : Anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibody titers decline as the number of days since COVID-19 vaccination increases. Anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibody titers are inversely associated with acetate, a microbial-derived metabolite, and urea. Amino acid metabolism is significantly associated with SARS-CoV-2 antibody titers.

Microfluidic Diffusional Sizing (MDS) Measurements of Secretory Neutralizing Antibody Affinity Against SARS-CoV-2

SARS-CoV-2 has rampantly spread around the globe and continues to cause unprecedented loss through ongoing waves of (re)infection. Increasing our understanding of the protection against infection with SARS-CoV-2 is critical to ending the pandemic. Serological assays have been widely used to assess immune responses, but secretory antibodies, the essential first line of defense, have been studied to only a limited extent. Of particular interest and importance are neutralizing antibodies, which block the binding of the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 to the human receptor angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 (ACE2) and thus are essential for immune defense. Here, we employed Microfluidic Diffusional Sizing (MDS), an immobilization-free technology, to characterize neutralizing antibody affinity to SARS-CoV-2 spike receptor-binding domain (RBD) and spike trimer in saliva. Affinity measurement was obtained through a contrived sample and buffer using recombinant SARS-CoV-2 RBD and monoclonal antibody. Limited saliva samples demonstrated that MDS applies to saliva neutralizing antibody measurement. The ability to disrupt a complex of ACE2-Fc and spike trimer is shown. Using a quantitative assay on the patient sample, we determined the affinity and binding site concentration of the neutralizing antibodies.

Prognostic value of anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies: a systematic review

OBJECTIVES

Globally, over 772 million cases of COVID-19 have been reported. New variants of interest with corresponding spikes in case numbers continue to be identified. Vulnerable patients, including older adults or patients with severe comorbidities, continue to be at risk. A large body of evidence has been accumulated regarding anti-SARS-CoV-2-antibodies and COVID-19 but the usefulness of antibody measurements remains unclear. This systematic review aims to assess the prognostic value of anti-SARS-CoV-2-antibodies and their usefulness for guiding booster vaccinations.

METHODS

Studies in English and published between January 2020 and October 2023 were included. Studies that relied on multiparameter-models or comprised fewer than 100 participants were excluded. PubMed and via the WHO COVID-19 research database, Embase and Medline databases were searched. Study selection and quality assessment was conducted independently by two researchers.

RESULTS

After screening 1,160 studies, 33 studies comprising >30 million individuals were included. Anti-SARS-CoV-2-antibodies were strongly associated with reduced risk of SARS-CoV-2-infection and better outcomes, including mortality. Risk of infection and COVID-19 severity decreased with increasing antibody levels.

CONCLUSIONS

Anti-SARS-CoV-2-antibodies are useful for early identification of high-risk patients and timely adjustment of therapy. Protective thresholds may be applied to advise booster vaccinations but verification in separate cohorts is required.

COVID-19 in Lung Transplant Recipients: A Report on 10 Recent Cases

Due to immunosuppression, transplant recipients are at higher risk of infections with SARS-CoV-2 and worse clinical outcomes than immunocompetent hosts. Furthermore, lung transplant patients represent a special group among solid organ recipients, since pneumonia is the main manifestation of COVID-19. However, data on the course of disease and the changes in morbidity and mortality during the course of the pandemic are limited. In our pulmonary rehabilitation clinic, we treat patients shortly after lung transplant as well as long-term transplant patients. Over the last almost 4 years of pandemic, we witnessed several COVID-19 infections in lung transplant patients in our clinic as well as patients who acquired an infection beforehand. In this paper, we aim at retrospectively describing a series of recent COVID-19 cases in our clinic, looking at the clinical course of disease and outcomes in lung transplant patients.

From Detection to Protection: Antibodies and Their Crucial Role in Diagnosing and Combatting SARS-CoV-2

Understanding the antibody response to SARS-CoV-2, the virus responsible for COVID-19, is crucial to comprehending disease progression and the significance of vaccine and therapeutic development. The emergence of highly contagious variants poses a significant challenge to humoral immunity, underscoring the necessity of grasping the intricacies of specific antibodies. This review emphasizes the pivotal role of antibodies in shaping immune responses and their implications for diagnosing, preventing, and treating SARS-CoV-2 infection. It delves into the kinetics and characteristics of the antibody response to SARS-CoV-2 and explores current antibody-based diagnostics, discussing their strengths, clinical utility, and limitations. Furthermore, we underscore the therapeutic potential of SARS-CoV-2-specific antibodies, discussing various antibody-based therapies such as monoclonal antibodies, polyclonal antibodies, anti-cytokines, convalescent plasma, and hyperimmunoglobulin-based therapies. Moreover, we offer insights into antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 vaccines, emphasizing the significance of neutralizing antibodies in order to confer immunity to SARS-CoV-2, along with emerging variants of concern (VOCs) and circulating Omicron subvariants. We also highlight challenges in the field, such as the risks of antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE) for SARS-CoV-2 antibodies, and shed light on the challenges associated with the original antigenic sin (OAS) effect and long COVID. Overall, this review intends to provide valuable insights, which are crucial to advancing sensitive diagnostic tools, identifying efficient antibody-based therapeutics, and developing effective vaccines to combat the evolving threat of SARS-CoV-2 variants on a global scale.

Anti-spike antibody level is associated with the risk of clinical progression among subjects hospitalized with COVID-19 pneumonia: results from a retrospective cohort study

PURPOSE

Antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 spike (anti-S) may confer protection against symptomatic COVID-19. Whether their level predicts progression among those with COVID-19 pneumonia remains unclear.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective cohort study to assess predictors of anti-S levels and whether anti-S titer is associated with death or mechanical ventilation (MV). Adults hospitalized for COVID-19 pneumonia between July 2021 and July 2022 were enrolled if anti-S had been measured within 72 h of admission. Predictors of anti-S level were explored using multivariable quantile regression. The association between anti-S levels and 30-day death/MV was investigated via multivariable logistic regression. Analyses were stratified by vaccine status.

RESULTS

The median anti-S level was 1370 BAU/ml in 328 vaccinated and 15.5 BAU/ml in 206 unvaccinated individuals. Among the vaccinated, shorter symptom duration (p = 0.001), hematological malignancies (p = 0.002), and immunosuppressive therapy (p = 0.004) were associated with lower anti-S levels. In the unvaccinated group, symptom duration was the only predictor of anti-S levels (p < 0.001). After 30 days, 134 patients experienced death or MV. Among vaccinated individuals, higher anti-S levels correlated significantly with lower death/MV risk (per log2 increase, OR 0.88, 95%CI 0.81-0.97), irrespective of age and solid malignancies. Among unvaccinated, a marginally protective effect was observed (OR 0.86, 95%CI 0.73-1.01), independent of age, immunosuppressive therapy, and diabetes. Adjustment for monoclonal antibody treatment strengthened the association (OR 0.81, 95%CI 0.68-0.96).

CONCLUSION

This study suggests that levels of anti-S antibodies can predict critical or fatal outcomes in COVID-19 pneumonia patients, regardless of vaccination. Whether anti-S Ab could guide risk assessment and vaccination boosting merits further evaluation.

Reactivity of anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in Serbian voluntary blood donors

BACKGROUND

The COVID-19 pandemic has major implications on the entire blood supply system worldwide. Seroepidemiological studies are certainly necessary for better understanding the global burden that the COVID-19 pandemic represents.

OBJECTIVES

In this study, we analysed the association between demographic factors, COVID-19 severity, vaccination status and the reactivity of anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgG antibodies in Serbian blood donors.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In a prospective study, demographic data and data related to previous SARS-CoV-2 infection, COVID-19 severity and vaccination status among whole blood donors were analysed, from February 10 to August 10, 2022, at the Blood Transfusion Institute of Vojvodina, Serbia. The detection and determination of the level of anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgG antibodies were performed using LIAISON® SARS-CoV-2 TrimericS IgG immunoassay.

RESULTS

A total of 1190 blood donors were included, 24.5% were female and 75.5% were male while their average age was 41 years. Anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibody values ranged from 2.40 to 3120 BAU/ml with a mean value of 1354.56 BAU/ml. Statistical analysis showed that COVID-19 severity and vaccination status are linked with reactivity of anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies, while gender and age of voluntary blood donors are not related to the values of anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies.

CONCLUSION

The values of anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in voluntary blood donors in Serbia are kept relatively high, especially in blood donors who have overcome the severe COVID-19, as well as in donors who have been vaccinated against COVID-19. Further SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence studies in our country are certainly still necessary so global strategies to fight against COVID-19 would be adequately evaluated.

Recurrent and persistent fever after SARS-CoV-2 infection in patients with follicular lymphoma: A case series

Although persistent or recurrent COVID-19 infection is well described in some immunosuppressed patient cohort, to date, there have been no reports of this phenomenon in the context of repeatedly negative SARS-CoV-2 testing in the upper respiratory tract. We reported six patients with follicular lymphoma who developed recurrent symptomatic COVID-19 infection. They tested persistently negative for SARS-CoV-2 on pharyngeal swabs and ultimately confirmed by bronchoalveolar lavage fluid metagenomics next-generation sequencing. All six patients presented with lymphopenia and B-cell depletion, and five of them received the anti-cluster of differentiation 20 treatment in the last year. Persistent fever was the most common symptom and bilateral ground-glass opacities were the primary pattern on chest computed tomography. A relatively long course of unnecessary and ineffective antibacterial and/or antifungal treatments was administered until the definitive diagnosis. Persistent fever subsided rapidly with nirmatrelvir/ritonavir treatment. Our case highlighted that recurrent COVID-19 infection should be suspected in immunocompromised patients with persistent fever despite negative pharyngeal swabs, and urgent bronchoalveolar lavage fluid testing is necessary. Treatment with nirmatrelvir/ritonavir appeared to be very effective in these patients.

Engineered polyspecific antibodies: A new frontier in the field of immunotherapeutics

The 21st-century beginning remarked with the huge success of monospecific MAbs, however, in the last couple of years, polyspecific MAbs (PsAbs) have been an interesting topic and show promise of being biobetter than monospecific MAbs. Polyspecificity, in which a single antibody serves multiple specific target binding, has been hypothesized to contribute to the development of a highly effective antibody repertoire for immune defence. This polyspecific MAb trend represents an explosion that is gripping the whole pharmaceutical industry. This review is concerned with the current development and quality enforcement of PsAbs. All provided literature on monospecific MAbs and polyspecific MAbs (PsAbs) were searched using various electronic databases such as PubMed, Google Scholar, Web of Science, Elsevier, Springer, ACS, Google Patent and books via the keywords Antibody engineering, Polyspecific antibody, Conventional antibody, non-conventional antibody, and Single domain antibody. In the literature, there are more than 100 different formats to construct PsAb by quadroma technology, chemical conjugation and genetic engineering. Till March 2023, nine PsAb have been approved around the world, and around 330 are in advanced developmental stages, showing the dominancy of PsAb in the growing health sector. Recent advancements in protein engineering techniques and the fusion of non-conventional antibodies have made it possible to create complex PsAbs that demonstrate higher stability and enhanced potency. This marks the most significant achievement for cancer immunotherapy, in which PsAbs have immense promise. It is worth mentioning that seven out of the nine PsAbs have been approved as anti-cancer therapy. As PsAbs continue to acquire prominence, they could pave the way for the development of novel immunotherapies for multiple diseases.

Delayed Antibody Response in the Acute Phase of Infection Is Associated with a Lower Mental Component of Quality of Life in Survivors of Severe and Critical COVID-19

Background: The long-term sequelae of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) significantly affects quality of life (QoL) in disease survivors. Delayed development of the adaptive immune response is associated with more severe disease and a worse prognosis in COVID-19. The effects of delayed immune response on COVID-19 sequelae and QoL are unknown. Methods: We conducted a prospective study to assess the relationship between the delayed antibody response in the acute phase of infection in naïve unvaccinated patients suffering from severe or critical COVID-19 and their QoL 12 months after hospital discharge. The 12-item Short Form Survey (SF-12) questionnaire was used for assessment of QoL. The SF-12 evaluates both mental and physical components of QoL, incorporating a mental component score (MCS-12) and a physical component score (PCS-12). A delayed antibody response was defined as testing negative for anti-spike SARS-CoV-2 antibodies at the time of hospital admission. Results: The study included 274 patients (154 men and 120 women). Of the enrolled patients, 144 had a delayed immune response. These patients had a significantly lower MCS-12 (p = 0.002), but PCS-12 (p = 0.397) was not significantly different at the 12-month follow-up compared to patients with positive anti-spike SARS-CoV-2 antibodies. The MCS-12 at the time of follow-up was negatively associated with delayed antibody response irrespective of possible confounders (p = 0.006; B = 3.609; ηp2 = 0.035; 95% CI = 1.069-6.150). An MSC-12 below 50 points at the time of follow-up was positively associated with delayed antibody response (p = 0.001; B = 1.092; OR = 2.979; 95% CI = 1.554-5.711). Conclusions: This study confirmed that, in patients with severe and critical COVID-19, a negative result for anti-spike SARS-CoV-2 antibodies at the time of hospital admission is associated with a lower mental component of QoL in unvaccinated patients naïve to COVID-19 one year after hospital discharge.

Outlining recent updates on influenza therapeutics and vaccines: A comprehensive review

Influenza virus has presented a considerable healthcare challenge during the past years, particularly in vulnerable groups with compromised immune systems. Therapeutics and vaccination have always been in research annals since the spread of influenza. Efforts have been going on to develop an antiviral therapeutic approach that could assist in better disease management and reduce the overall disease complexity, resistance development, and fatality rates. On the other hand, vaccination presents a chance for effective, long-term, cost-benefit, and preventive response against the morbidity and mortality associated with the influenza. However, the issues of resistance development, strain mutation, antigenic variability, and inability to cure wide-spectrum and large-scale strains of the virus by available vaccines remain there. The article gathers the updated data for the therapeutics and available influenza vaccines, their mechanism of action, shortcomings, and trials under clinical experimentation. A methodological approach has been adopted to identify the prospective therapeutics and available vaccines approved and within the clinical trials against the influenza virus. Review contains influenza therapeutics, including traditional and novel antiviral drugs and inhibitor therapies against influenza virus as well as research trials based on newer drug combinations and latest technologies such as nanotechnology and organic and plant-based natural products. Most recent development of influenza vaccine has been discussed including some updates on traditional vaccination protocols and discussion on next-generation and upgraded novel technologies. This review will help the readers to understand the righteous approach for dealing with influenza virus infection and for deducing futuristic approaches for novel therapeutic and vaccine trials against Influenza.

A comprehensive review on immunogen and immune-response proteins of SARS-CoV-2 and their applications in prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of COVID-19

Exposure to severe acute respiratory syndrome-corona virus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) prompts humoral immune responses in the human body. As the auxiliary diagnosis of a current infection, the existence of viral proteins can be checked from specific antibodies (Abs) induced by immunogenic viral proteins. For people with a weakened immune system, Ab treatment can help neutralize viral antigens to resist and treat the disease. On the other hand, highly immunogenic viral proteins can serve as effective markers for detecting prior infections. Additionally, the identification of viral particles or the presence of antibodies may help establish an immune defense against the virus. These immunogenic proteins rather than SARS-CoV-2 can be given to uninfected people as a vaccination to improve their coping ability against COVID-19 through the generation of memory plasma cells. In this work, we review immunogenic and immune-response proteins derived from SARS-CoV-2 with regard to their classification, origin, and diverse applications (e.g., prevention (vaccine development), diagnostic testing, and treatment (via neutralizing Abs)). Finally, advanced immunization strategies against COVID-19 are discussed along with the contemporary circumstances and future challenges.

Dynamics of serum cross-neutralization capacity against SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant in convalescent COVID-19 patients

The magnitude and breadth of the neutralizing antibody response against variants of concern following natural infection would provide valuable insights regarding the immune response induced by severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) infection. Herein, 25 patients were followed at 30 ±7 (Visit 1), 90± 15 (Visit 2), and 180 ± 15 (Visit 3) days post symptom onset (PSO). The neutralization titers against both Wuhan-Hu-1 (WT) and Delta variant were analyzed in parallel along with anti-Spike antibodies (anti-S1/S2 immunoglobulin G [IgG]). The median values of half-maximal neutralization titer (NT50 ) for the WT and Delta variants decreased by 75.8% and 82.2% at Visit 2 and by 85.4% and 81.4% at Visit 3, respectively. At Visit 1, the correlation between the anti-S1/S2 IgG and Nabs titers for the Delta variant was moderate for WT (r = 0.58) and weak for the Delta variant (r = 0.39). However, the correlation coefficient consistently remained above 0.7, with a very strong correlation at Visit 3 for both WT and Delta variants (r = 0.81). The dynamics of anti-S1/S2 IgG antibodies, NT50 , and cross-neutralization index correlated at different time points PSO. Longitudinal analysis of the cross-neutralization capacity of immune sera will inform upon the durability of the immune response against SARS CoV-2 variants.

B-cell and antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2: infection, vaccination, and hybrid immunity

The emergence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in 2019 prompted scientific, medical, and biotech communities to investigate infection- and vaccine-induced immune responses in the context of this pathogen. B-cell and antibody responses are at the center of these investigations, as neutralizing antibodies (nAbs) are an important correlate of protection (COP) from infection and the primary target of SARS-CoV-2 vaccine modalities. In addition to absolute levels, nAb longevity, neutralization breadth, immunoglobulin isotype and subtype composition, and presence at mucosal sites have become important topics for scientists and health policy makers. The recent pandemic was and still is a unique setting in which to study de novo and memory B-cell (MBC) and antibody responses in the dynamic interplay of infection- and vaccine-induced immunity. It also provided an opportunity to explore new vaccine platforms, such as mRNA or adenoviral vector vaccines, in unprecedented cohort sizes. Combined with the technological advances of recent years, this situation has provided detailed mechanistic insights into the development of B-cell and antibody responses but also revealed some unexpected findings. In this review, we summarize the key findings of the last 2.5 years regarding infection- and vaccine-induced B-cell immunity, which we believe are of significant value not only in the context of SARS-CoV-2 but also for future vaccination approaches in endemic and pandemic settings.

Passive antibody transfer from pregnant women to their fetus are maximized after SARS-CoV-2 vaccination irrespective of prior infection

Background

Pregnancy is associated with a higher risk of adverse symptoms and outcomes for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection for both mother and neonate. Antibodies can provide protection against SARS-CoV-2 infection and are induced in pregnant women after vaccination or infection. Passive transfer of these antibodies from mother to fetus in utero may provide protection to the neonate against infection. However, it is unclear whether the magnitude or quality and kinetics of maternally derived fetal antibodies differs in the context of maternal infection or vaccination.

Objective

We aimed to determine whether antibodies transferred from maternal to fetus differed in quality or quantity between infection- or vaccination-induced humoral immune responses.

Methods

We evaluated 93 paired maternal and neonatal umbilical cord blood plasma samples collected between October 2020 and February 2022 from a birth cohort of pregnant women from New Orleans, Louisiana, with histories of SARS-CoV-2 infection and/or vaccination. Plasma was profiled for the levels of spike-specific antibodies and induction of antiviral humoral immune functions, including neutralization and Fc-mediated innate immune effector functions. Responses were compared between 4 groups according to maternal infection and vaccination.

Results

We found that SARS-CoV-2 vaccination or infection during pregnancy increased the levels of antiviral antibodies compared to naive subjects. Vaccinated mothers and cord samples had the highest anti-spike antibody levels and antiviral function independent of the time of vaccination during pregnancy.

Conclusions

These results show that the most effective passive transfer of functional antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 in utero is achieved through vaccination, highlighting the importance of vaccination in pregnant women.

SARS-CoV-2 vaccination in the first year after hematopoietic cell transplant or chimeric antigen receptor T cell therapy: A prospective, multicenter, observational study (BMT CTN 2101)

Background

The optimal timing of vaccination with SARS-CoV-2 vaccines after cellular therapy is incompletely understood.

Objective

To describe humoral and cellular responses after SARS-CoV-2 vaccination initiated <4 months versus 4-12 months after cellular therapy.

Design

Multicenter prospective observational study.

Setting

34 centers in the United States.

Participants

466 allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplant (HCT; n=231), autologous HCT (n=170), or chimeric antigen receptor T cell (CAR-T cell) therapy (n=65) recipients enrolled between April 2021 and June 2022.

Interventions

SARS-CoV-2 vaccination as part of routine care.

Measurements

We obtained blood prior to and after vaccinations at up to five time points and tested for SARS-CoV-2 spike (anti-S) IgG in all participants and neutralizing antibodies for Wuhan D614G, Delta B.1.617.2, and Omicron B.1.1.529 strains, as well as SARS-CoV-2-specific T cell receptors (TCRs), in a subgroup.

Results

Anti-S IgG and neutralizing antibody responses increased with vaccination in HCT recipients irrespective of vaccine initiation timing but were unchanged in CAR-T cell recipients initiating vaccines within 4 months. Anti-S IgG ≥2,500 U/mL was correlated with high neutralizing antibody titers and attained by the last time point in 70%, 69%, and 34% of allogeneic HCT, autologous HCT, and CAR-T cell recipients, respectively. SARS-CoV-2-specific T cell responses were attained in 57%, 83%, and 58%, respectively. Humoral and cellular responses did not significantly differ among participants initiating vaccinations <4 months vs 4-12 months after cellular therapy. Pre-cellular therapy SARS-CoV-2 infection or vaccination were key predictors of post-cellular therapy anti-S IgG levels.

Limitations

The majority of participants were adults and received mRNA vaccines.

Conclusions

These data support starting mRNA SARS-CoV-2 vaccination three to four months after allogeneic HCT, autologous HCT, and CAR-T cell therapy.

Funding

National Marrow Donor Program, Leukemia and Lymphoma Society, Multiple Myeloma Research Foundation, Novartis, LabCorp, American Society for Transplantation and Cellular Therapy, Adaptive Biotechnologies, and the National Institutes of Health.

Quantitative and Standardized Pseudovirus Neutralization Assay for COVID-19

COVID-19 is a global pandemic caused by the highly infectious SARS-CoV-2 virus. Efforts to combat SARS-CoV-2 infection include mass vaccination and development of monoclonal and convalescent plasma therapeutics that require precise measurements of correlative, functional neutralizing antibodies that prevent virus infection. Developing rapid, safe, easy-to-use, and high-quality neutralization assays are essential for the success of the massive effort. Here, we developed a vesicular stomatitis virus-based neutralization assay that was capable of quantifying varying degrees of neutralization in patient serum samples. This assay has two detection readouts, flow cytometry and live cell imaging. The two readout methods produced consistent values of all 50% neutralization titers, further enhancing measurement confidence on the assay. Moreover, the use of available reference standards such as the World Health Organization International Standard (NIBSC code 20/136) enables quantification and standardization of the pseudovirus neutralization assay with neutralizing antibody titers measured in International Units/mL. Quantitative and standardized neutralization assays are critical for reliable efficacy evaluation and comparison of numerous vaccines and therapeutics.

Anti-S Antibodies Against SARS-CoV-2 Infection Among Four Types of Vaccines in Malaysia

Monitoring SARS-CoV-2 antibody levels can provide insights into a person's immunity to COVID-19 and inform decisions about vaccination and public health measures. Anti-S may be useful as an indicator of an effective immune response. Thus, we conducted this study that aimed to determine the immune response of anti-S antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 for all the vaccine types over time among adult recipients in Malaysia and to determine the associated factors. This study was a cohort that recruited 2513 respondents aged 18 years and above from June to December 2021. Each participant was followed-up for 1-year period from the initial vaccine dose (baseline). We found that the anti-S antibody generally increased for all vaccine types and peaked at two weeks after the second dose vaccination, with Pfizer recipients having the highest median of 100 (100.00-100.00). During the third-month follow-up, the seropositivity of anti-S antibody and the median level decreased for all vaccines. We found that type of vaccines, comorbid status, infection, and booster status were significantly associated with the anti-S antibody level after one year.

Clinical and laboratory considerations: determining an antibody-based composite correlate of risk for reinfection with SARS-CoV-2 or severe COVID-19

Much of the global population now has some level of adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 induced by exposure to the virus (natural infection), vaccination, or a combination of both (hybrid immunity). Key questions that subsequently arise relate to the duration and the level of protection an individual might expect based on their infection and vaccination history. A multi-component composite correlate of risk (CoR) could inform individuals and stakeholders about protection and aid decision making. This perspective evaluates the various elements that need to be accommodated in the development of an antibody-based composite CoR for reinfection with SARS-CoV-2 or development of severe COVID-19, including variation in exposure dose, transmission route, viral genetic variation, patient factors, and vaccination status. We provide an overview of antibody dynamics to aid exploration of the specifics of SARS-CoV-2 antibody testing. We further discuss anti-SARS-CoV-2 immunoassays, sample matrices, testing formats, frequency of sampling and the optimal time point for such sampling. While the development of a composite CoR is challenging, we provide our recommendations for each of these key areas and highlight areas that require further work to be undertaken.

Humoral Immune Responses following COVID-19 Vaccinations among Adults in Tanzania

COVID-19 vaccination remains to be the most important intervention in the fight against the pandemic. The immunity among the vaccinated population and its durability can significantly vary due to various factors. This study investigated the humoral immune responses among individuals who received any of the COVID-19 vaccines approved for use in Tanzania. A total of 1048 randomly selected adults who received COVID-19 vaccines at different time points were enrolled and humoral immune responses (IR) were tested at baseline and three months later (960, 91.6%). The level of SARS-CoV-2 anti-spike/receptor binding domain (RBD) IgG, anti-nucleocapsid IgG, and IgM antibodies were determined using a commercially available chemiluminescent microparticle immunoassay. Descriptive data analysis was performed using STATA version 18 and R. At baseline, serum IgG against anti-spike/RBD was detected in 1010/1048 (96.4%) participants (95%CI: 94.9-97.5) and 98.3% (95%CI: 97.3-99) three months later. The IgG against the SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid proteins were detected in 40.8% and 45.3% of participants at baseline and follow-up, respectively. The proportion of seroconverters following vaccination and mean titers of anti-spike/RBD antibodies were significantly more among those who had past SARS-CoV-2 infection than in those with no evidence of past infection, (p < 0.001). Only 0.5% of those who had detectable anti-spike/RBD antibodies at baseline were negative after three months of follow-up and 1.5% had breakthrough infections. The majority of participants (99.5%) had detectable anti-spike/RBD antibodies beyond 6 months post-vaccination. The proportion of Tanzanians who mounted humoral IR following COVID-19 vaccination was very high. Seroconversions, as well as the mean titers and durability of humoral IR, were significantly enhanced by exposure to natural SARS-CoV-2 infection. In view of the limited availability of COVID-19 vaccines as well as challenges to completing subsequent doses, booster doses could only be suggested to high-risk groups.

The impact of early anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibody production on the length of hospitalization stay among COVID-19 patients

IMPORTANCE

The study provides valuable insights into the sociodemographic characteristics, clinical outcomes, and humoral immune response of those affected by the virus that has devastated every field of human life since 2019; the COVID-19 patients. Firstly, the association among clinical manifestations, comorbidities, and the production of neutralizing antibodies (Nabs) against SARS-CoV-2 is explored. Secondly, varying levels of Nabs among patients are revealed, and a significant correlation between the presence of Nabs and a shorter duration of hospitalization is identified, which highlights the potential role of Nabs in predicting clinical outcomes. Lastly, a follow-up conducted 7 months later demonstrates the progression and persistence of Nabs production in recovered unvaccinated individuals. The study contributes essential knowledge regarding the characteristics of the study population, the early humoral immune response, and the dynamics of Nabs production over time. These findings have significant implications for understanding the immune response to COVID-19 and informing clinical management approaches.

Blood-derived product therapies for SARS-CoV-2 infection and long COVID

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is capable of large-scale transmission and has caused the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Patients with COVID-19 may experience persistent long-term health issues, known as long COVID. Both acute SARS-CoV-2 infection and long COVID have resulted in persistent negative impacts on global public health. The effective application and development of blood-derived products are important strategies to combat the serious damage caused by COVID-19. Since the emergence of COVID-19, various blood-derived products that target or do not target SARS-CoV-2 have been investigated for therapeutic applications. SARS-CoV-2-targeting blood-derived products, including COVID-19 convalescent plasma, COVID-19 hyperimmune globulin, and recombinant anti-SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing immunoglobulin G, are virus-targeting and can provide immediate control of viral infection in the short term. Non-SARS-CoV-2-targeting blood-derived products, including intravenous immunoglobulin and human serum albumin exhibit anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, antioxidant, and anticoagulatory properties. Rational use of these products can be beneficial to patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection or long COVID. With evidence accumulated since the pandemic began, we here summarize the progress of blood-derived product therapies for COVID-19, discuss the effective methods and scenarios regarding these therapies, and provide guidance and suggestions for clinical treatment.

Age and prior vaccination determine the antibody level in children with primary SARS-CoV-2 Omicron infection

BACKGROUND

Protection against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) reinfection relies on immunity generated after primary infection. However, humoral immunity following primary infection with the Omicron variant is not well understood.

METHODS

We prospectively recruited children <19 years with virologically-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection at National Cheng Kung University Hospital from February 2022 to September 2022 during the first wave of Omicron BA.2 outbreak in Taiwan. Serum samples were collected one month after acute infection to measure anti-spike protein receptor binding domain antibody levels and surrogate virus neutralizing antibody (NAb) levels against wild type disease and variants.

RESULTS

Of the 164 patients enrolled, most were under 5 years (65.2%) with a diagnosis of upper respiratory tract infection. Children under 6 months with maternal coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccination had higher levels of both anti-SARS-CoV-2 spike antibody (119.0 vs 27.4 U/ml, p < 0.05) and anti-wild type NAb (56.9% vs 27.6% inhibition, p = 0.001) than those without. Children aged 5-12 years with prior vaccination had higher anti-spike antibody, anti-wild type, and anti-Omicron BA.2 NAb levels than those without (all p < 0.05). In previously naïve children without maternal or self-vaccination, those 6 months to 2 years had the highest antibody levels. Multivariable linear regression analysis showed age was the only independent factor associated with antibody level.

CONCLUSIONS

In our study, children aged 6 months to 2 years have the highest antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant infection. Age and prior vaccination are the main factors influencing the immunogenicity of SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Duplex Electrochemical Microfluidic Sensor for COVID-19 Antibody Detection: Natural versus Vaccine-Induced Humoral Response

The rapid transmission and resilience of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) have led to urgent demands in monitoring humoral response for effective vaccine development, thus a multiplex co-detection platform to discriminate infection-induced from vaccine-induced antibodies is needed. Here a duplex electrochemical immunosensor for co-detection of anti-nucleocapsid IgG (N-IgG) and anti-spike IgG (S-IgG) is developed by using a two-working electrode system, via an indirect immunoassay, with antibody quantification obtained by differential pulse voltammetry. The screen-printed electrodes (SPEs) are modified by carbon black and electrodeposited gold nanoflowers for maximized surface areas, enabling the construction of an immunological chain for S-IgG and N-IgG electrochemical detection with enhanced performance. Using an optimized immunoassay protocol, a wide linear range between 30-750 and 20-1000 ng mL-1 , and a limit of detection of 28 and 15 ng mL-1 are achieved to detect N-IgG and S-IgG simultaneously in serum samples. This duplex immunosensor is then integrated in a microfluidic device to obtain significantly reduced detection time (≤ 7 min) while maintaining its analytical performance. The duplex microfluidic immunosensor can be easily expanded into multiplex format to achieve high throughput screening for the sero-surveillance of COVID-19  and other infectious diseases.

Development of a novel medium throughput flow-cytometry based micro-neutralisation test for SARS-CoV-2 with applications in clinical vaccine trials and antibody screening

Quantifying neutralising capacity of circulating SARS-COV-2 antibodies is critical in evaluating protective humoral immune responses generated post-infection/post-vaccination. Here we describe a novel medium-throughput flow cytometry-based micro-neutralisation test to evaluate Neutralising Antibody (NAb) responses against live SARS-CoV-2 Wild Type and Variants of Concern (VOC) in convalescent/vaccinated populations. Flow Cytometry-Based Micro-Neutralisation Test (Micro-NT) was performed in 96-well plates using clinical isolates WT-B, WT-B.1.177.18 and/or VOCs Beta and Omicron. Plasma samples (All Ireland Infectious Diseases (AIID) Cohort) were serially diluted (8 points, half-log) from 1:20 and pre-incubated with SARS-CoV-2 (1h, 37°C). Virus-plasma mixture were added onto Vero E6 or Vero E6/TMPRSS2 cells for 18h. Percentage infected cells was analysed by automated flow cytometry following trypsinisation, fixation and SARS-CoV-2 Nucleoprotein intracellular staining. Half-maximal Neutralisation Titres (NT50) were determined using non-linear regression. Our assay was compared to Plaque Reduction Neutralisation Test (PRNT) and validated against the First WHO International Standard for anti-SARS-CoV-2 immunoglobulin. Both Micro-NT and PRNT achieved comparable NT50 values. Further validation showed adequate correlation with PRNT using a panel of secondary standards of clinical convalescent and vaccinated plasma samples. We found the assay to be reproducible through measuring both repeatability and intermediate precision. Screening 190 convalescent samples and 11 COVID-19 naive controls (AIID cohort) we demonstrated that Micro-NT has broad dynamic range differentiating NT50s <1/20 to >1/5000. We could also characterise immune-escape VOC Beta and Omicron BA.5, achieving fold-reductions in neutralising capacity similar to those published. Our flow cytometry-based Micro-NT is a robust and reliable assay to quantify NAb titres, and has been selected as an endpoint in clinical trials.

Distinct receptor binding domain IgG thresholds predict protective host immunity across SARS-CoV-2 variants and time

SARS-CoV-2 neutralising antibodies provide protection against COVID-19. Evidence from early vaccine trials suggested binding antibody thresholds could serve as surrogate markers of neutralising capacity, but whether these thresholds predict sufficient neutralising capacity against variants of concern (VOCs), and whether this is impacted by vaccine or infection history remains unclear. Here we analyse individuals recovered from, vaccinated or with hybrid immunity against SARS-CoV-2. An NT50 ≥ 100 IU confers protection in vaccine trials, however, as VOC induce a reduction in NT50, we use NT50 ≥ 1000 IU as a cut off for WT NT50 that would retain neutralisation against VOC. In unvaccinated convalescent participants, a receptor binding domain (RBD) IgG of 456 BAU/mL predicts an NT50 against WT of 1000 IU with an accuracy of 80% (95%CI 73-86%). This threshold maintains accuracy in determining loss of protective immunity against VOC in two vaccinated cohorts. It predicts an NT50 < 100 IU against Beta with an accuracy of 80% (95%CI 67-89%) in 2 vaccine dose recipients. In booster vaccine recipients with a history of COVID-19 (hybrid immunity), accuracy is 87% (95%CI 77-94%) in determining an NT50 of <100 IU against BA.5. This analysis provides a discrete threshold that could be used in future clinical studies.

High unrecognized SARS-CoV-2 exposure of newly admitted and hospitalized psychiatric patients

BACKGROUND

Patients with pre-existing mental disorders are at higher risk for SARS-CoV-2 infection and adverse outcomes, and severe mental illness, including mood and psychosis spectrum disorders, is associated with increased mortality risk. Despite their increased risk profile, patients with severe mental illness have been understudied during the pandemic, with limited estimates of exposure in inpatient settings.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to describe the SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence and antibody titers, and pro-inflammatory cytokine concentrations of newly admitted or hospitalized psychiatric inpatients without known history of COVID-19 infection, using robust quantitative multi-antigen assessments, and compare patients' exposure to that of hospital staff.

METHODS

This multi-centric, cross-sectional study compared SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence and titers of 285 patients (University Psychiatric Centre Duffel [UPCD] N = 194; Assistance-Publique-Hopitaux de Paris [AP-HP] N = 91), and 192 hospital caregivers (UPCD N = 130; AP-HP N = 62) at two large psychiatric care facilities between January 1st and the May 30th 2021. Serum levels of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies against Spike proteins (full length), spike subunit 1 (S1), spike subunit 2 (S2), spike subunit 1 receptor binding domain (S1-RBD) and Nucleocapsid proteins were quantitatively determined using an advanced capillary Western Blot technique. To assess the robustness of the between-group seroprevalence differences, we performed sensitivity analyses with stringent cut-offs for seropositivity. We also assessed peripheral concentrations of IL-6, IL-8 and TNF-a using ELLA assays. Secondary analyses included comparisons of SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence and titers between patient diagnostic subgroups, and between newly admitted (hospitalization ≤ 7 days) and hospitalized patients (hospitalization > 7 days) and correlations between serological and cytokines.

RESULTS

Patients had a significantly higher SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence (67.85 % [95% CI 62.20-73.02]) than hospital caregivers (27.08% [95% CI 21.29-33.77]), and had significantly higher global SARS-CoV-2 titers (F = 29.40, df = 2, p < 0.0001). Moreover, patients had a 2.51-fold (95% CI 1.95-3.20) higher SARS-CoV-2 exposure risk compared to hospital caregivers (Fisher's exact test, P < 0.0001). No difference was found in SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence and titers between patient subgroups. Patients could be differentiated most accurately from hospital caregivers by their higher Spike protein titers (OR 136.54 [95% CI 43.08-481.98], P < 0.0001), lower S1 (OR 0.06 [95% CI 0.02-0.15], P < 0.0001) titers and higher IL-6 (OR 3.41 [95% CI 1.73-7.24], P < 0.0001) and TNF-α (OR 34.29 [95% CI 5.00-258.87], P < 0.0001) and lower titers of IL-8 (OR 0.13 [95% CI 0.05-0.30], P < 0.0001). Seropositive patients had significantly higher SARS-COV-2 antibody titers compared to seropositive hospital caregivers (F = 19.53, df = 2, P < 0.0001), while titers were not different in seronegative individuals. Pro-inflammatory cytokine concentrations were not associated with serological status.

CONCLUSION

Our work demonstrated a very high unrecognized exposure to SARS-CoV-2 among newly admitted and hospitalized psychiatric inpatients, which is cause for concern in the context of highly robust evidence of adverse outcomes following COVID-19 in psychiatric patients. Attention should be directed toward monitoring and mitigating exposure to infectious agents within psychiatric hospitals.

Antigen-dependent modulation of immune responses to antigen-Fc fusion proteins by Fc-effector functions

Background

Fc-fusion proteins have been successfully developed for therapeutic purposes, but are also a promising platform for the fast generation and purification of immunogens capable of inducing strong humoral immune responses in preclinical immunization studies. As the Fc-portion of immunoglobulins fused to an antigen confers functional properties of the parental antibody, such as dimerization, binding to Fc-receptors and complement activation, several studies reported that Fc-fusion proteins elicit stronger antigen-specific antibody responses than the unfused antigen. However, dimerization or half-life extension of an antigen have also been described to enhance immunogenicity.

Methods

To explore the role of Fc-effector functions for the immunogenicity of fusions proteins of viral glycoproteins and Fc fragments, the HIV-1 gp120 and the RBD of SARS-CoV-2 were fused to the wild type muIgG2a Fc fragment or mutants with impaired (LALA-PG) or improved (GASDIE) Fc-effector functions.

Results

Immunization of BALB/c mice with DNA vaccines encoding gp120 - Fc LALA-PG induced significantly higher antigen-specific antibody responses than gp120 - Fc WT and GASDIE. In contrast, immunization with DNA vaccines encoding the RBD fused to the same Fc mutants, resulted in comparable anti-RBD antibody levels and similar neutralization activity against several SARS-CoV-2 variants.

Conclusion

Depending on the antigen, Fc-effector functions either do not modulate or suppress the immunogenicity of DNA vaccines encoding Fc-antigen fusion proteins.

Profiling of SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibody-associated antigenic peptides signature using proteome microarray

The profile of antibodies against antigenic epitopes of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) during neutralizing antibody (NAb) decay has not been clarified. Using a SARS-CoV-2 proteome microarray that contained viral antigenic peptides, we analyzed the characteristics of the humoral response in patients with coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) in a longitudinal study. A total of 89 patients were recruited, and 226 plasma samples were serially collected in 2020. In the antigenic peptide microarray, the level of immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies against peptides within the S2 subunit (S-82) and a conserved gene region in variants of interest, open reading frame protein 10 (ORF10-3), were closely associated with the presence of SARS-CoV-2 NAbs. In an independent evaluation cohort of 232 plasma samples collected from 116 COVID-19 cases in 2020, S82-IgG titers were higher in NAbs-positive samples (p = 0.002) than in NAbs-negative samples using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. We further collected 66 plasma samples from another cohort infected by Omicron BA.1 virus in 2022. Compared with the samples with lower S82-IgG titers, NAb titers were significantly higher in the samples with higher S82-IgG titers (p = 0.04). Our findings provide insights into the understanding of the decay-associated signatures of SARS-CoV-2 NAbs.

Heterologous vaccination (ChAdOx1 and BNT162b2) induces a better immune response against the omicron variant than homologous vaccination

BACKGROUND

The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has seen the emergence of numerous novel variants of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) virus. In this study, we compared the efficacy of three different forms of immunization against the wild-type, delta, and omicron variants of the virus: two doses of the BNT or AZ vaccine (BNT/BNT or AZ/AZ) as homologous vaccination, three doses of AZ/AZ/BNT as heterologous vaccination, and naturally occurring immunization in severe COVID-19 cases.

METHODS

We collected serum samples from vaccine recipients (67 receiving BNT/BNT, 111 receiving AZ/AZ, and 18 receiving AZ/AZ/BNT) and 46 patients who were admitted to the hospital with severe COVID-19. Blood samples were taken one month after the last injection and the efficacy of the vaccination was determined using the surrogate virus neutralization test (sVNT), with a positive result defined as an inhibition rate of over 30%. Serum samples from COVID-19 patients were taken at various points during their hospitalization and tested for inhibition rates.

RESULTS

Our results indicated that there was no notable difference in the levels of neutralizing antibodies (nAb) in vaccine recipients and patients against the wild-type and delta variants. However, when it came to the omicron variant, the vaccine recipients had significantly lower nAb titers. Among the vaccine recipients, those who received a booster dose of BNT after their first two doses of AZ (AZ/AZ/BNT) demonstrated the highest level of protection against the omicron variant at 44.4%, followed closely by the COVID-19 patients. In analyzing the serial samples taken from hospitalized COVID-19 patients, we observed that their inhibition rates against the wild-type and delta variants improved over time, while the inhibition rate against the omicron variant decreased.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, our findings suggest that heterologous booster vaccination after primary vaccination produces higher nAb titers and provides a higher level of protection against the omicron variant compared to primary vaccination alone. This protective effect was similar to that observed in patients with severe COVID-19.

Development of ELISA-Based Assay for Detection of SARS-CoV-2 Neutralizing Antibody

Infection with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) stimulates the plasma B cells to secrete specific antibodies against the viral antigen. However, not all antibodies can prevent the virus from entering the cells. The subpopulation of antibodies which blocks the entry of the virus into host cells is termed neutralizing antibodies (NAbs). The gold standard test for the detection of NAbs is the viral plaque reduction and neutralization test; however, various other methods can also be utilized to detect NAbs. In this study, we have developed an Enzyme Linked Immunosobent Assay (ELISA)-based protocol for rapid detection of SARS CoV-2 NAb by inhibiting the binding of the spike protein receptor-binding domain to angiotensin converting enzyme 2 and compared it with cPASS neutralizing antibody kit, which was approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The results obtained suggest that the in-house ELISA developed for the detection of NAbs against SARS-CoV-2 is rapid and reliable. Compared to FDA-approved GenScript's cPass assay, the specificity and the sensitivity of the in-house-developed ELISA kit were 100% (95% confidence intervals of 69.15-100.00) and 96% (95% confidence intervals of 86.29-99.51), respectively. Thus, the ELISA protocol developed to test the neutralizing activities of antibodies is rapid, which requires a BSL-2 infrastructure facility and can be easily performed. It has very high potential applications in the rapid screening of NAb against SARS-CoV-2.

Efficacy of COVID-19 vaccines in inflammatory bowel disease patients receiving anti-TNF therapy: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Background and objectives

There are concerns about the serological responses to Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccines in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) patients, particularly those receiving anti-TNF therapy. This study aimed to systematically evaluate the efficacy of COVID-19 vaccines in IBD patients receiving anti-TNF therapy.

Methods

Electronic databases were searched to identify relevant studies. We calculated pooled seroconversion rate after COVID-19 vaccination and subgroup analysis for vaccine types and different treatments were performed. Additionally, we estimated pooled rate of T cell response, neutralization response, and breakthrough infections in this population.

Results

32 studies were included in the meta-analysis. IBD patients receiving anti-TNF therapy had relatively high overall seroconversion rate after complete vaccination, with no statistical difference in antibody responses associated with different drug treatments. The pooled positivity rate of T cell response was 0.85 in IBD patients receiving anti-TNF therapy. Compared with healthy controls, the positivity of neutralization assays was significantly lower in IBD patients receiving anti-TNF therapy. The pooled rate of breakthrough infections in IBD patients receiving anti-TNF therapy was 0.04.

Conclusions

COVID-19 vaccines have shown good efficacy in IBD patients receiving anti-TNF therapy. However, IBD patients receiving anti-TNF have a relatively high rate of breakthrough infections and a low level of neutralization response.

Estimation of antibody levels after COVID-19 vaccinations: Preliminary evidence for immune interoception

To date, 72 % of the world's population has received at least one COVID-19 vaccination. The number of antibodies produced by some individuals is exponentially higher than in others, for various mostly unknown reasons. This variation causes great diversity in the future susceptibility to infection by the original or variants of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. The following study investigated whether individuals were able to estimate the strength of their antibody response after their COVID-19 vaccinations. 166 recently vaccinated participants provided a blood sample for determination of antibody titers. Participants were asked to estimate how many antibodies they thought they had produced, and were further asked how protected they felt from COVID-19 due to vaccination. Both self-rated antibody levels, and feelings of protection against COVID-19 were significantly related to their actual IgG spike antibody titers, after controlling for age, days since vaccination, BMI and cross vaccination. These results suggest that individuals may have a form of "immune interoception" which relates to their response to their COVID-19 vaccination.

Vaccine-elicited B- and T-cell immunity to SARS-CoV-2 is impaired in chronic lung disease patients

Background

While vaccination against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) provides significant protection from coronavirus disease 2019, the protection afforded to individuals with chronic lung disease is less well established. This study seeks to understand how chronic lung disease impacts SARS-CoV-2 vaccine-elicited immunity.

Methods

Deep immune phenotyping of humoral and cell-mediated responses to the SARS-CoV-2 vaccine was performed in patients with asthma, COPD and interstitial lung disease (ILD) compared to healthy controls.

Results

48% of vaccinated patients with chronic lung diseases had reduced antibody titres to the SARS-CoV-2 vaccine antigen relative to healthy controls. Vaccine antibody titres were significantly reduced among asthma (p<0.035), COPD (p<0.022) and a subset of ILD patients as early as 3-4 months after vaccination, correlating with decreased vaccine-specific memory B-cells in circulation. Vaccine-specific memory T-cells were significantly reduced in patients with asthma (CD8+ p<0.004; CD4+ p<0.023) and COPD (CD8+ p<0.008) compared to healthy controls. Impaired T-cell responsiveness was also observed in a subset of ILD patients (CD8+ 21.4%; CD4+ 42.9%). Additional heterogeneity between healthy and disease cohorts was observed among bulk and vaccine-specific follicular T-helper cells.

Conclusions

Deep immune phenotyping of the SARS-CoV-2 vaccine response revealed the complex nature of vaccine-elicited immunity and highlights the need for more personalised vaccination schemes in patients with underlying lung conditions.

Binding and Avidity Signatures of Polyclonal Sera From Individuals With Different Exposure Histories to Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Infection, Vaccination, and Omicron Breakthrough Infections

BACKGROUND

The number of exposures to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and to vaccine antigens affect the magnitude and avidity of the polyclonal response.

METHODS

We studied binding and avidity of different antibody isotypes to the spike, the receptor-binding domain (RBD), and the nucleoprotein (NP) of wild-type (WT) and BA.1 SARS-CoV-2 in convalescent, mRNA vaccinated and/or boosted, hybrid immune individuals and in individuals with breakthrough cases during the peak of the BA.1 wave.

RESULTS

We found an increase in spike-binding antibodies and antibody avidity with increasing number of exposures to infection and/or vaccination. NP antibodies were detectible in convalescent individuals and a proportion of breakthrough cases, but they displayed low avidity. Omicron breakthrough infections elicited high levels of cross-reactive antibodies between WT and BA.1 antigens in vaccinated individuals without prior infection directed against the spike and RBD. The magnitude of the antibody response and avidity correlated with neutralizing activity against WT virus.

CONCLUSIONS

The magnitude and quality of the antibody response increased with the number of antigenic exposures, including breakthrough infections. However, cross-reactivity of the antibody response after BA.1 breakthroughs, was affected by the number of prior exposures.

SARS-CoV-2-Specific CD8+ T-Cells in Blood but Not in the Lungs of Vaccinated K18-hACE2 Mice after Infection

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV)-2 enters the host by infecting nasal ciliated cells. Then, the virus can spread towards the oropharyngeal cavity and the pulmonary tissues. The antiviral adaptive immunity is promptly induced in response to the virus's detection, with virus-specific T-lymphocytes appearing before antiviral antibodies. Both the breadth and potency of antiviral CD8+ T-cell immunity have a key role in containing viral spread and disease severity. Current anti-SARS-CoV-2 vaccines do not impede the virus's replication in the upper respiratory tract, and there is consensus on the fact that the best potency of the antiviral immune response in both blood and the upper respiratory tract can be reached upon infection in vaccinees (i.e., breakthrough infection). However, whether the antiviral CD8+ T-cells developing in response to the breakthrough infection in the upper respiratory tract diffuse to the lungs is also still largely unknown. To fill the gap, we checked the CD8+ T-cell immunity elicited after infection of K18-hACE2 transgenic mice both at 3 weeks and 3 months after anti-spike vaccination. Virus-specific CD8+ T-cell immunity was monitored in both blood and the lungs before and after infection. By investigating the de novo generation of the CD8+ T-cells specific for SARS-CoV-2 viral proteins, we found that both membrane (M) and/or nucleocapsid (N)-specific CD8+ T-cells were induced at comparable levels in the blood of both unvaccinated and vaccinated mice. Conversely, N-specific CD8+ T-cells were readily found in the lungs of the control mice but were either rare or absent in those of vaccinated mice. These results support the idea that the hybrid cell immunity developing after asymptomatic/mild breakthrough infection strengthens the antiviral cell immunity in the lungs only marginally, implying that the direct exposition of viral antigens is required for the induction of an efficient antiviral cell immunity in the lungs.

Cellular immunity to SARS-CoV-2 following intrafamilial exposure in seronegative family members

Introduction

Family studies of antiviral immunity provide an opportunity to assess virus-specific immunity in infected and highly exposed individuals, as well as to examine the dynamics of viral infection within families. Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 between family members represented a major route for viral spread during the early stages of the pandemic, due to the nature of SARS-CoV-2 transmission through close contacts.

Methods

Here, humoral and cellular immunity is explored in 264 SARS-CoV-2 infected, exposed or unexposed individuals from 81 families in the United Kingdom sampled in the winter of 2020 before widespread vaccination and infection.

Results

We describe robust cellular and humoral immunity into COVID-19 convalescence, albeit with marked heterogeneity between families and between individuals. T-cell response magnitude is associated with male sex and older age by multiple linear regression. SARS-CoV-2-specific T-cell responses in seronegative individuals are widespread, particularly in adults and in individuals exposed to SARS-CoV-2 through an infected family member. The magnitude of this response is associated with the number of seropositive family members, with a greater number of seropositive individuals within a family leading to stronger T-cell immunity in seronegative individuals.

Discussion

These results support a model whereby exposure to SARS-CoV-2 promotes T-cell immunity in the absence of an antibody response. The source of these seronegative T-cell responses to SARS-CoV-2 has been suggested as cross-reactive immunity to endemic coronaviruses that is expanded upon SARS-CoV-2 exposure. However, in this study, no association between HCoV-specific immunity and seronegative T-cell immunity to SARS-CoV-2 is identified, suggesting that de novo T-cell immunity may be generated in seronegative SARS-CoV-2 exposed individuals.

Development of a Cell-Based SARS-CoV-2 Pseudovirus Neutralization Assay Using Imaging and Flow Cytometry Analysis

COVID-19 is an ongoing, global pandemic caused by the novel, highly infectious SARS-CoV-2 virus. Efforts to mitigate the effects of SARS-CoV-2, such as mass vaccination and development of monoclonal therapeutics, require precise measurements of correlative, functional neutralizing antibodies that block virus infection. The development of rapid, safe, and easy-to-use neutralization assays is essential for faster diagnosis and treatment. Here, we developed a vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV)-based neutralization assay with two readout methods, imaging and flow cytometry, that were capable of quantifying varying degrees of neutralization in patient serum samples. We tested two different spike-pseudoviruses and conducted a time-course assay at multiple multiplicities of infection (MOIs) to optimize the assay workflow. The results of this assay correlate with the results of previously developed serology and surrogate neutralization assays. The two pseudovirus readout methods produced similar values of 50% neutralization titer values. Harvest-free in situ readouts for live-cell imaging and high-throughput analysis results for flow cytometry can provide unique capabilities for fast evaluation of neutralization, which is critical for the mitigation of future pandemics.

Comparative Longitudinal Serological Study of Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Antibody Profiles in People with COVID-19

Serological diagnostic assays are essential tools for determining an individual's protection against viruses like SARS-CoV-2, tracking the spread of the virus in the community, and evaluating population immunity. To assess the diversity and quality of the anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibody response, we have compared the antibody profiles of people with mild, moderate, and severe COVID-19 using a dot blot assay. The test targeted the four major structural proteins of SARS-CoV-2, namely the nucleocapsid (N), spike (S) protein domains S1 and S2, and receptor-binding domain (RBD). Serum samples were collected from 63 participants at various time points for up to 300 days after disease onset. The dot blot assay revealed patient-specific differences in the anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibody profiles. Out of the 63 participants with confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infections and clinical COVID-19, 35/63 participants exhibited diverse and robust responses against the tested antigens, while 14/63 participants displayed either limited responses to a subset of antigens or no detectable antibody response to any of the antigens. Anti-N-specific antibody levels decreased within 300 days after disease onset, whereas anti-S-specific antibodies persisted. The dynamics of the antibody response did not change during the test period, indicating stable antibody profiles. Among the participants, 28/63 patients with restricted anti-S antibody profiles or undetectable anti-S antibody levels in the dot blot assay also exhibited weak neutralization activity, as measured by a surrogate virus neutralization test (sVNT) and a microneutralization test. These results indicate that in some cases, natural infections do not lead to the production of neutralizing antibodies. Furthermore, the study revealed significant serological variability among patients, regardless of the severity of their COVID-19 illness. These differences need to be carefully considered when evaluating the protective antibody status of individuals who have experienced primary SARS-CoV-2 infections.

Evaluation of humoral immune response in relation to COVID-19 severity over 1 year post-infection: critical cases higher humoral immune response than mild cases

Introduction

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is caused by SARS-CoV-2. We investigated the antibody response against SARS-CoV-2 until 1 year after symptom onset.

Methods

We collected 314 serum samples from 97 patients with COVID-19. Antibody responses were tested using an indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT) to detect specific neutralizing antibodies.

Results

The positivity rates for neutralizing antibodies at a 1:10 titer cutoff were 58.1% at 1 week, 97.8% at 4 weeks, and 78% at 1 year after symptom onset (53.8% in asymptomatic patients and 89.3% in symptomatic patients). The IFA and anti-S1 ELISA IgG results significantly correlated with neutralizing antibody titers. Critical/fatal cases showed significantly higher antibody titers than the asymptomatic or mild-to-moderate illness groups. Nonetheless, the median number of days to the seroconversion of neutralizing antibodies was 10 and 15 in asymptomatic and symptomatic patients, respectively. The asymptomatic group had a significantly higher neutralizing potency index than the mild-to-severe illness groups.

Conclusions

Neutralizing antibodies corresponded to earlier seroconversion but had a shorter presence in the asymptomatic group than in the symptomatic group and were still present 1 year after symptom onset in critical/fatal cases.

Longitudinal analysis of anti-SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibody (NAb) titers in vaccinees using a novel giant magnetoresistive (GMR) assay

The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the need to monitor important correlates of immunity on a population-wide level. To this end, we have developed a competitive assay to assess neutralizing antibody (NAb) titer on the giant magnetoresistive (GMR) biosensor platform. We compared the clinical performance of our biosensor with established techniques such as Ortho's VITROS Anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgG Quantitative Antibody test. Results obtained between the VITROS test and the GMR assay showed correlation (r = -0.93). We then validated the assay with patient plasma samples that had been tested using focus reduction neutralization testing (FRNT). The results obtained from our GMR assay exhibit a previously identified trend of increased NAb titers 2 weeks post-vaccination. We further evaluated NAb titers 6 months post-vaccination and observed waning neutralizing antibody titers over that time in vaccinated patients. In addition, we calibrated our assay to an arbitrary unit (IU/mL) using World Health Organization (WHO) reference plasma provided by the National Institute of Biological Standards and Control (NIBSC). Our biosensor provides highly specific and sensitive results in serum and plasma with analytical, clinical, and point-of-care (POC) applications due to quick turnaround times on samples and the cost-effectiveness of the platform.

SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein Is Capable of Inducing Cell-Cell Fusions Independent from Its Receptor ACE2 and This Activity Can Be Impaired by Furin Inhibitors or a Subset of Monoclonal Antibodies

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which was responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic, efficiently spreads cell-to-cell through mechanisms facilitated by its membrane glycoprotein spike. We established a dual split protein (DSP) assay based on the complementation of GFP and luciferase to quantify the fusogenic activity of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. We provide several lines of evidence that the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2, but not SARS-CoV-1, induced cell-cell fusion even in the absence of its receptor, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2). This poorly described ACE2-independent cell fusion activity of the spike protein was strictly dependent on the proteasomal cleavage of the spike by furin while TMPRSS2 was dispensable. Previous and current variants of concern (VOCs) differed significantly in their fusogenicity. The Delta spike was extremely potent compared to Alpha, Beta, Gamma and Kappa, while the Omicron spike was almost devoid of receptor-independent fusion activity. Nonetheless, for all analyzed variants, cell fusion was dependent on furin cleavage and could be pharmacologically inhibited with CMK. Mapping studies revealed that amino acids 652-1273 conferred the ACE2-independent fusion activity of the spike. Unexpectedly, residues proximal to the furin cleavage site were not of major relevance, whereas residue 655 critically regulated fusion. Finally, we found that the spike's fusion activity in the absence of ACE2 could be inhibited by antibodies directed against its N-terminal domain (NTD) but not by antibodies targeting its receptor-binding domain (RBD). In conclusion, our BSL-1-compatible DSP assay allowed us to screen for inhibitors or antibodies that interfere with the spike's fusogenic activity and may therefore contribute to both rational vaccine design and development of novel treatment options against SARS-CoV-2.

Spike- and nucleocapsid-based gold colloid assay toward the development of an adhesive bandage for rapid SARS-CoV-2 immune response detection and screening

Immunoglobulin M (IgM) and immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies are important biomarkers used for the diagnosis and screening of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infections in both symptomatic and asymptomatic individuals. These antibodies are highly specific to the spike (S) and nucleocapsid (N) proteins of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. This paper outlines the development steps of a novel hybrid (vertical-lateral-vertical) flow assay in the form of a finger-stick point-of-care device, similar to an adhesive bandage, designed for the timely detection and screening of IgM and IgG immune responses to SARS-CoV-2 infections. The assay, comprising a vertically stacked plasma/serum separation membrane, conjugate pad, and detection (readout) zone, utilizes gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) conjugated with SARS-CoV-2 S and N proteins to effectively capture IgM and IgG antibodies from a pinprick (~15 µL) of blood in just one step and provides results of no immune IgM-/IgG-, early immune IgM+/IgG-, active immune IgM+/IgG+ or immune IgM-/IgG+ in a short amount of time (minutes). The adhesive bandage-like construction is an example of the design of rapid, low-cost, disposable, and easy-to-use tests for large-scale detection and screening in households. Furthermore, the bandage can be easily adjusted and optimized to detect different viral infections as they arise by simply selecting appropriate antigens related to pandemics and outbreaks.

Neutralizing Antibodies in COVID-19 Serum from Tatarstan, Russia

The severity of COVID-19 is a result of the complex interplay between various branches of the immune system. However, our understanding of the role of neutralizing antibodies and the activation of cellular immune response in COVID-19 pathogenesis remains limited. In this study, we investigated neutralizing antibodies in patients with mild, moderate, and severe COVID-19, analyzing their cross-reactivity with the Wuhan and Omicron variants. We also assessed the activation of the immune response by measuring serum cytokines in patients with mild, moderate, and severe COVID-19. Our findings suggest the early activation of neutralizing antibodies in moderate COVID-19 compared to mild cases. We also observed a strong correlation between the cross-reactivity of neutralizing antibodies to the Omicron and Wuhan variants and the severity of the disease. In addition, we found that Th1 lymphocyte activation was present in mild and moderate cases, while inflammasomes and Th17 lymphocytes were activated in severe COVID-19. In conclusion, our data indicate that the early activation of neutralizing antibodies is evident in moderate COVID-19, and there is a strong correlation between the cross-reactivity of neutralizing antibodies and the severity of the disease. Our findings suggest that the Th1 immune response may play a protective role, while inflammasome and Th17 activation may be involved in severe COVID-19.

Mucosal immunization with lipopeptides derived from conserved regions of SARS-CoV-2 antigens induce robust cellular and cross-variant humoral immune responses in mice

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the causative agent of COVID-19, has infected >600 million people in the ongoing global pandemic. Several variants of the SARS-CoV-2 have emerged in the last >2 years, challenging the continued efficacy of current COVID vaccines. Therefore, there is a crucial need to investigate a highly cross-protective vaccine effective against variants of SARS-CoV-2. In this study, we examined seven lipopeptides derived from highly conserved, immunodominant epitopes from the S, N, and M proteins of SARS-CoV-2, that are predicted to contain epitopes for clinically protective B cells, helper T cells (TH) and cytotoxic T cells (CTL). Intranasal immunization of mice with most of the lipopeptides led to significantly higher splenocyte proliferation and cytokine production, mucosal and systemic antibody responses, and induction of effector B and T lymphocytes in both lungs and spleen, compared to immunizations with the corresponding peptides without lipid. Immunizations with Spike-derived lipopeptides led to cross-reactive IgG, IgM and IgA responses against Alpha, Beta, Delta, and Omicron Spike proteins as well as neutralizing antibodies. These studies support their potential for development as components of a cross-protective SARS-CoV-2 vaccine.

Simultaneous Quantitative SARS-CoV-2 Antigen and Host Antibody Detection and Pre-Screening Strategy at the Point of Care

As COVID-19 pandemic public health measures are easing globally, the emergence of new SARS-CoV-2 strains continue to present high risk for vulnerable populations. The antibody-mediated protection acquired from vaccination and/or infection is seen to wane over time and the immunocompromised populations can no longer expect benefit from monoclonal antibody prophylaxis. Hence, there is a need to monitor new variants and its effect on vaccine performance. In this context, surveillance of new SARS-CoV-2 infections and serology testing are gaining consensus for use as screening methods, especially for at-risk groups. Here, we described an improved COVID-19 screening strategy, comprising predictive algorithms and concurrent, rapid, accurate, and quantitative SARS-CoV-2 antigen and host antibody testing strategy, at point of care (POC). We conducted a retrospective analysis of 2553 pre- and asymptomatic patients who were tested for SARS-CoV-2 by RT-PCR. The pre-screening model had an AUC (CI) of 0.76 (0.73-0.78). Despite being the default method for screening, body temperature had lower AUC (0.52 [0.49-0.55]) compared to case incidence rate (0.65 [0.62-0.68]). POC assays for SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid protein (NP) and spike (S) receptor binding domain (RBD) IgG antibody showed promising preliminary results, demonstrating a convenient, rapid (<20 min), quantitative, and sensitive (ng/mL) antigen/antibody assay. This integrated pre-screening model and simultaneous antigen/antibody approach may significantly improve accuracy of COVID-19 infection and host immunity screening, helping address unmet needs for monitoring vaccine effectiveness and severe disease surveillance.

Coronavirus spike protein-specific antibodies indicate frequent infections and reinfections in infancy and among BNT162b2-vaccinated healthcare workers

The prevalence of seasonal human coronavirus (HCoV) infections in early childhood and adults has not been well analyzed in longitudinal serological studies. Here we analyzed the changes in HCoV (229E, HKU1, NL63, OC43, MERS, and SARS-CoV-2) spike-specific antibody levels in follow-up serum specimens of 140 children at the age of 1, 2, and 3 years, and of 113 healthcare workers vaccinated for Covid-19 with BNT162b2-vaccine. IgG antibody levels against six recombinant HCoV spike subunit 1 (S1) proteins were measured by enzyme immunoassay. We show that by the age of three years the cumulative seropositivity for seasonal HCoVs increased to 38-81% depending on virus type. BNT162b2 vaccinations increased anti-SARS-CoV-2 S1 antibodies, but no increase in seasonal coronavirus antibodies associated with vaccinations. In healthcare workers (HCWs), during a 1-year follow-up, diagnostic antibody rises were seen in 5, 4 and 14% of the cases against 229E, NL63 and OC43 viruses, respectively, correlating well with the circulating HCoVs. In 6% of the HCWs, a diagnostic antibody rise was seen against S1 of HKU1, however, these rises coincided with anti-OC43 S1 antibody rises. Rabbit and guinea pig immune sera against HCoV S1 proteins indicated immunological cross-reactivity within alpha-CoV (229E and NL63) and beta-CoV (HKU1 and OC43) genera.