Osmotin attenuates amyloid beta-induced memory impairment, tau phosphorylation and neurodegeneration in the mouse hippocampus

Natural products in the management of neurodegenerative diseases

Neurodegenerative diseases represent one of the utmost imperative well-being health issues and apprehensions due to their escalating incidence of mortality. Natural derivatives are more efficacious in various preclinical models of neurodegenerative illnesses. These natural compounds include phytoconstituents in herbs, vegetables, fruits, nuts, and marine and freshwater flora, with remarkable efficacy in mitigating neurodegeneration and enhancing cognitive abilities in preclinical models. According to the latest research, the therapeutic activity of natural substances can be increased by adding phytoconstituents in nanocarriers such as nanoparticles, nanogels, and nanostructured lipid carriers. They can enhance the stability and specificity of the bioactive compounds to a more considerable extent. Nanotechnology can also provide targeting, enhancing their specificity to the respective site of action. In light of these findings, this article discusses the biological and therapeutic potential of natural products and their bioactive derivatives to exert neuroprotective effects and some clinical studies assessing their translational potential to treat neurodegenerative disorders.

AdipoRon promotes amyloid-β clearance through enhancing autophagy via nuclear GAPDH-induced sirtuin 1 activation in Alzheimer's disease

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide is one of the more important pathological markers in Alzheimer's disease (AD). The development of AD impairs autophagy, which results in an imbalanced clearance of Aβ. Our previous research demonstrated that AdipoRon, an agonist of adiponectin receptors, decreased the deposition of Aβ and enhanced cognitive function in AD. However, the exact mechanisms by which AdipoRon affects Aβ clearance remain unclear.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

We studied how AdipoRon affects autophagy in HT22 cells and APP/PS1 transgenic mice. We also investigated the signalling pathway involved and used pharmacological inhibitors to examine the role of autophagy in this process.

KEY RESULTS

AdipoRon promotes Aβ clearance by activating neuronal autophagy in the APP/PS1 transgenic mice. Interestingly, we found that AdipoRon induces the nuclear translocation of GAPDH, where it interacts with the SIRT1/DBC1 complex. This interaction then leads to the release of DBC1 and the activation of SIRT1, which in turn activates autophagy. Importantly, we found that inhibiting either GAPDH or SIRT1 to suppress the activity of SIRT1 counteracts the elevated autophagy and decreased Aβ deposition caused by AdipoRon. This suggests that SIRT1 plays a critical role in the effect of AdipoRon on autophagic induction in AD.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

AdipoRon promotes the clearance of Aβ by enhancing autophagy through the AdipoR1/AMPK-dependent nuclear translocation of GAPDH and subsequent activation of SIRT1. This novel molecular pathway sheds light on the modulation of autophagy in AD and may lead to the development of new therapeutic strategies targeting this pathway.

The role of adiponectin in Alzheimer's disease: A translational review

Adiponectin is an adipokine playing a central role in the regulation of energy homeostasis, carbohydrate and lipid metabolism, as well as immunomodulation. The relationship between Alzheimer's disease (AD) and body composition has highlighted the bidirectional crosstalk between AD's pathophysiology and metabolic disorders. This review aimed to report the current state of knowledge about cellular and molecular mechanisms linking adiponectin and AD, in preclinical studies. Then, we reviewed human studies to assess the relationship between adiponectin levels and AD diagnosis. We also examined the risk of incident AD regarding the participants' baseline adiponectin level, as well as the relationship of adiponectin and cognitive decline in patients with AD. We conducted a systematic review, in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses reporting guideline, of studies published over the last decade on MEDLINE and Cochrane databases. Overall, we reviewed 34 original works about adiponectin in AD, including 11 preclinical studies, two both preclinical and human studies and 21 human studies. Preclinical studies brought convincing evidence for the neuroprotective role of adiponectin on several key mechanisms of AD. Human studies showed conflicting results regarding the relationship between AD and adiponectin levels, as well as regarding the cross-sectional association between cognitive function and adiponectin levels. Adiponectin did not appear as a predictor of incident AD, nor as a predictor of cognitive decline in patients with AD. Despite solid preclinical evidence suggesting the protective role of adiponectin in AD, inconsistent results in humans supports the need for further research.

Adipose tissue as a therapeutic target for vascular damage in Alzheimer's disease

Adipose tissue has recently been recognized as an important endocrine organ that plays a crucial role in energy metabolism and in the immune response in many metabolic tissues. With this regard, emerging evidence indicates that an important crosstalk exists between the adipose tissue and the brain. However, the contribution of adipose tissue to the development of age-related diseases, including Alzheimer's disease, remains poorly defined. New studies suggest that the adipose tissue modulates brain function through a range of endogenous biologically active factors known as adipokines, which can cross the blood-brain barrier to reach the target areas in the brain or to regulate the function of the blood-brain barrier. In this review, we discuss the effects of several adipokines on the physiology of the blood-brain barrier, their contribution to the development of Alzheimer's disease and their therapeutic potential. LINKED ARTICLES: This article is part of a themed issue From Alzheimer's Disease to Vascular Dementia: Different Roads Leading to Cognitive Decline. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v181.6/issuetoc.

Identification and Characterization of Neuroprotective Properties of Thaumatin-like Protein 1a from Annurca Apple Flesh Polyphenol Extract

BACKGROUND

Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD) are multifactorial neurodegenerative disorders that are mostly treated with drugs inhibiting key enzymes of cholinergic and aminergic neurotransmission, such as acetyl and butyryl cholinesterase (AChE, BuChE) or monoamine oxidases (MAO)-A/B, and of Aβ1-40 aggregation. Diet plant components with multitarget functions are promising compounds in the prevention of AD and PD. Our aim was to identify neuroprotective compounds from Annurca apple polyphenol extract (AFPE).

METHODS

AFPE was fractionated by gel filtration, and the eluted peaks were subjected to chemical analyses (i.e., RP-HPLC and mass spectrometry), determination of inhibitory enzyme activity and cell effects by MTT, and morphology assays.

RESULTS

In AFPE, we identified thaumatin-like protein 1a, belonging to the pathogenesis-related protein (PR) family. This protein showed the best inhibitory activity on AChE, MAO-A (IC50 = 5.53 µM and 1.71 µM, respectively), and Aβ1-40 fibril aggregation (IC50 = 9.16 µM), compared to AFPE and other polyphenol-containing fractions. Among the latter, Peak 4 reverted Aβ fibril formation (IC50 = 104.87 µM). Moreover, thaumatin-like protein 1a protected AGS and MKN-28 cells from serum-deprivation-induced stress conditions.

CONCLUSIONS

We showed that AFPE exerted neuroprotective functions not only through its polyphenols but also through thaumatin-like protein 1a, which acted like a multitarget molecule.

Role of Network Pharmacology in Prediction of Mechanism of Neuroprotective Compounds

Network pharmacology is an emerging pioneering approach in the drug discovery process, which is used to predict the therapeutic mechanism of compounds using various bioinformatic tools and databases. Emerging studies have indicated the use of network pharmacological approaches in various research fields, particularly in the identification of possible mechanisms of herbal compounds/ayurvedic formulations in the management of various diseases. These techniques could also play an important role in the prediction of the possible mechanisms of neuroprotective compounds. The first part of the chapter includes an introduction on neuroprotective compounds based on literature. Further, network pharmacological approaches are briefly discussed. The use of network pharmacology in the prediction of the neuroprotective mechanism of compounds is discussed in detail with suitable examples. Finally, the chapter concludes with the current challenges and future prospectives.

Overview on the Polyphenol Avenanthramide in Oats (Avena sativa Linn.) as Regulators of PI3K Signaling in the Management of Neurodegenerative Diseases

Avenanthramides (Avns) and their derivatives, a group of polyphenolic compounds found abundantly in oats (Avena sativa Linn.), have emerged as promising candidates for neuroprotection due to their immense antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic properties. Neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs), characterized by the progressive degeneration of neurons, present a significant global health burden with limited therapeutic options. The phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) signaling pathway plays a crucial role in cell survival, growth, and metabolism, making it an attractive target for therapeutic intervention. The dysregulation of PI3K signaling has been implicated in the pathogenesis of various NDDs including Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease. Avns have been shown to modulate PI3K/AKT signaling, leading to increased neuronal survival, reduced oxidative stress, and improved cognitive function. This review explores the potential of Avn polyphenols as modulators of the PI3K signaling pathway, focusing on their beneficial effects against NDDs. Further, we outline the need for clinical exploration to elucidate the specific mechanisms of Avn action on the PI3K/AKT pathway and its potential interactions with other signaling cascades involved in neurodegeneration. Based on the available literature, using relevant keywords from Google Scholar, PubMed, Scopus, Science Direct, and Web of Science, our review emphasizes the potential of using Avns as a therapeutic strategy for NDDs and warrants further investigation and clinical exploration.

Neuroprotective effect of nose-to-brain delivery of Asiatic acid in solid lipid nanoparticles and its mechanisms against memory dysfunction induced by Amyloid Beta1-42 in mice

BACKGROUND

Amyloid-β1-42 (Aβ1-42) plays an essential role in the development of the early stage of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Asiatic acid (AA), an active compound in Centella asiatica L, exhibit neuroprotective properties in previous studies. Due to its low bioavailability, the nose-to-brain delivery technique was used to enhance AA penetration in the brain. In this study, AA was also loaded in solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) as a strategy to increase its absorption in the nasal cavity.

METHODS

Memory impairment was induced via direct intracerebroventricular injection of Aβ1-42 oligomer into mouse brain. The neuroprotective effect and potential underlying mechanisms were investigated using several memory behavioral examinations and molecular techniques.

RESULTS

The intranasal administration of AA in SLNs attenuated learning and memory impairment induced by Aβ1-42 in Morris water maze and novel object recognition tests. AA significantly inhibited tau hyperphosphorylation of pTau-S396 and pTau-T231 and prevented astrocyte reactivity and microglial activation in the hippocampus of Aβ1-42-treated mice. It is also decreased the high levels of IL-1β, TNF-α, and malondialdehyde (MDA) in mouse brain.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggested that nose-to-brain delivery of AA in SLNs could be a promising strategy to treat the early stage of AD.

Nattokinase prevents β-amyloid peptide (Aβ1-42) induced neuropsychiatric complications, neuroinflammation and BDNF signalling disruption in mice

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a chronic and progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by abnormal accumulation of extracellular β-amyloid (Aβ) plaques and neuronal damage. Although AD is typically considered a cognitive neurodegenerative disorder, almost all people diagnosed with AD develop neuropsychiatric complications at some stage in their life span. The present study investigated the effect of chronic Nattokinase (NK) administration on β-Amyloid peptide (Aβ1-42) induced neuropsychiatric conditions (depression-like behaviour, anxiety, and memory impairment) in mice. Aβ1-42 peptide injected mice demonstrated depression, anxiety, and impairment of cognitive abilities evaluated as increased immobility time in forced swim test (FST), decreased open arm time/entries in elevated plus maze (EPM) and reference and working memory error in radial arm maze (RAM) respectively with elevation in Interleukin-6 (IL-6), Tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), reduction in Interleukin-10 (IL-10) and Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) immunocontent within the hippocampus. Chronic administration of NK (50-100 mg/kg, i.p.) from day 8-27, prevented depression-like behaviour, anxiety, and memory impairment and normalized the neurochemical alteration within the hippocampus of mice injected with Aβ1-42 peptide. The effect of NK on psychiatric complications, learning, and memory was comparable to peripheral donepezil treatment. This study suggests that NK improves learning, memory impairment, and neuropsychiatric complications possibly through the downregulation of neuroinflammatory pathways and restoring BDNF signalling in AD.

Osthole/borneol thermosensitive gel via intranasal administration enhances intracerebral bioavailability to improve cognitive impairment in APP/PS1 transgenic mice

Alzheimer's disease (AD) poses a significant threat to the global elderly population. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has been widely utilized in the treatment of AD. Osthole, a bioactive ingredient classified as an "emperor" in many TCM formulas, has been demonstrated to effectively alleviate AD symptoms. However, its low bioavailability in the brain has limited its clinical application. This study aimed to increase the intracerebral bioavailability of osthole by using borneol as a "courier," based on the classical "Emperor-Minister-Assistant-Courier" model, and to investigate the enhanced pharmacological performance of osthole on AD. Results indicated that a suitable in situ thermosensitive gel matrix for intranasal administration mixed with osthole and borneol consists of P407 at 20%, P188 at 7%, and PEG300 at 6%. The concentration of osthole in the cerebrospinal fluid increased almost tenfold after intranasal administration of osthole/borneol compared to oral administration. Mechanisms showed that borneol as a "courier" opened up intercellular space and loosened the tight junctions of the nasal mucosa by suppressing ZO-1 and occludin expression, thereby expediting the nose-to-brain route and guiding osthole as "emperor" to its target in the brain. Osthole assisted by borneol demonstrated significantly improved efficiency in suppressing cleaved caspase-3 expression, increasing the Bcl-2/Bax ratio, improving T-SOD and catalase expression, reducing malondialdehyde levels, inhibiting neuron apoptosis, and decreasing Aβ levels by inhibiting BACE1 expression to alleviate cognitive impairment in APP/PS1 mice compared to osthole alone. Overall, our study demonstrated that the intracerebral bioavailability of osthole profoundly improved with intranasal administration of osthole/borneol and provided a wider application of TCM for AD treatment with higher intracerebral bioavailability.

Investigation of Potential Drug Targets for Cholesterol Regulation to Treat Alzheimer's Disease

Despite extensive research and seven approved drugs, the complex interplay of genes, proteins, and pathways in Alzheimer's disease remains a challenge. This implies the intricacies of the mechanism for Alzheimer's disease, which involves the interaction of hundreds of genes, proteins, and pathways. While the major hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease are the accumulation of amyloid plaques and tau protein tangles, excessive accumulation of cholesterol is reportedly correlated with Alzheimer's disease patients. In this work, protein-protein interaction analysis was conducted based upon the genes from a clinical database to identify the top protein targets with most data-indicated involvement in Alzheimer's disease, which include ABCA1, CYP46A1, BACE1, TREM2, GSK3B, and SREBP2. The reactions and pathways associated with these genes were thoroughly studied for their roles in regulating brain cholesterol biosynthesis, amyloid beta accumulation, and tau protein tangle formation. Existing clinical trials for each protein target were also investigated. The research indicated that the inhibition of SREBP2, BACE1, or GSK3B is beneficial to reduce cholesterol and amyloid beta accumulation, while the activation of ABCA1, CYP46A1, or TREM2 has similar effects. In this study, Sterol Regulatory Element-Binding Protein 2 (SREBP2) emerged as the primary protein target. SREBP2 serves a pivotal role in maintaining cholesterol balance, acting as a transcription factor that controls the expression of several enzymes pivotal for cholesterol biosynthesis. Novel studies suggest that SREBP2 performs a multifaceted role in Alzheimer's disease. The hyperactivity of SREBP2 may lead to heightened cholesterol biosynthesis, which suggested association with the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. Lowering SREBP2 levels in an Alzheimer's disease mouse model results in reduced production of amyloid-beta, a major contributor to Alzheimer's disease progression. Moreover, its thoroughly analyzed crystal structure allows for computer-aided screening of potential inhibitors; SREBP2 is thus selected as a prospective drug target. While more protein targets can be added onto the list in the future, this work provides an overview of key proteins involved in the regulation of brain cholesterol biosynthesis that may be further investigated for Alzheimer's disease intervention.

Protective effects of berberine against β-amyloid-induced neurotoxicity in HT22 cells via the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway

Neuronal apoptosis has been found to have a pivotal role in the course of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Berberine (BBR), a potent antioxidant, occurs in plants such as Berberis, Phellodendron chinense, and Hydrastis canadensis. In this study, a neuronal apoptotic model was established in vitro using HT22 cells induced by Aβ_25-35 to explore whether BBR contributes to protecting neurons against Aβ_25-35-induced neurotoxicity, as well as its potential mechanisms. BBR was applied to HT22 cells for 1 h prior to exposing the cells to Aβ_25-35 for 24 h. A CCK-8 assay was utilized to assess cell viability, and Annexin V - fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)/propidium iodide and Hoechst 33342 fluorescence staining were used to measure the rate of cell apoptosis. Existing scientific literature was also reviewed to further determine the effects of BBR on ROS production and mitochondrial function in HT22 cells. Furthermore, the expressions of proteins, including cytochrome C, cleaved caspase-3, p-p65, p65, and Nrf2/HO-1 antioxidant axis were assessed by Western blotting. The data indicated that BBR markedly improved cell viability, inhibited apoptosis and intracellular ROS levels, improved mitochondrial membrane potentials, decreased the rate of p-p65/p65, cytochrome C, and cleaved caspase-3, and intensified the activity of Nrf2/HO-1 antioxidants in HT22 cells. Overall, the findings indicated that BBR provides a certain level of neuroprotectiveness in HT22 cells exposed to Aβ_25-35 via relieving oxidative stress, as well as by restraining the mitochondrial pathway of cellular apoptosis. In addition, the restraint of NF-κB activity and sensitization of the Nrf2/HO-1 antioxidant axis, which together are intimately involved in the neuroprotection of BBR, may be possible mechanisms accounting for its effectiveness against Aβ_25-35in vitro.

Sterubin protects against chemically-induced Alzheimer's disease by reducing biomarkers of inflammation- IL-6/ IL-β/ TNF-α and oxidative stress- SOD/MDA in rats

Sterubin, a flavanone is an active chemical compound that possesses neuroprotective activity. The current investigation was intended to assess the sterubin effect in scopolamine-activated Alzheimer's disease. The rats were induced with scopolamine (1.5 mg/kg) followed by treatment with sterubin (10 mg/kg) for 14 days. Behavioural analysis was predictable by the Y-maze test and Morris water test. Biochemical variables like nitric oxide acetylcholinesterase, Choline acetyltransferase, antioxidant markers like superoxide dismutase, glutathione transferase, malondialdehyde, catalase, and myeloperoxidase activity, neuroinflammatory markers such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha, nuclear factor kappa B, interferon-gamma, interleukin (IL-1β), and IL-6 were measured. The result stated that sterubin reversed the oxidative stress parameters, increased motor performance, and lowered the inflammatory markers in scopolamine-induced rats. The study demonstrated that sterubin possesses neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties which can be used as a beneficial medication in AD.

Magnoflorine-Loaded Chitosan Collagen Nanocapsules Ameliorate Cognitive Deficit in Scopolamine-Induced Alzheimer's Disease-like Conditions in a Rat Model by Downregulating IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, and Oxidative Stress and Upregulating Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor and DCX Expressions

Dementia or the loss of cognitive functioning is one of the major health issues in elderly people. Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the common forms of dementia. Treatment chiefly involves the use of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitors in AD. However, oxidative stress has also been found to be involved in the proliferation of the disease. Magnoflorine is one of the active compounds of Coptidis Rhizoma and has high anti-oxidative properties. Active principle-loaded nanoparticles have shown increased efficiency for neurodegenerative diseases due to their ability to cross the blood-brain barrier more easily. An in vitro study involving magnoflorine-loaded chitosan collagen nanocapsules (MF-CCNc) has shown them to possess inhibitory effects against oxidative stress and to some extent on AChE as well. In the current study, both nootropic and anti-amnesic effects of magnoflorine and MF-CCNc on scopolamine-induced amnesia in rats were evaluated. The treatment was done intraperitoneally (i.p.) once daily for 17 consecutive days with MF-CCNc (0.25, 0.5, and 1 mg), magnoflorine (1 mg), and donepezil (1 mg). To induce amnesia, hence, cognitive deficit rats were induced with scopolamine (1 mg/kg) daily for the last 9 days. Novel object recognition (NOR) and elevated plus maze (EPM) behavioral analysis were done to assess memory functioning. Hippocampal tissues were extracted to study the effect on biochemicals (AChE, MDA, SOD, and CAT), pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α), and immunohistochemistry (brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and DCX). MF-CCNc showed memory-enhancing effects in nootropic as well as chronic scopolamine-treated rats in NOR and an increase in inflexion ratio in EPM. MF-CCNc reduced the levels of AChE and MDA while increasing SOD and CAT levels in the hippocampus. MF-CCNc further lowered the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α. These nanocapsules further increased the expression of BDNF and DCX that are necessary for adult neurogenesis. From the research findings, it can be concluded that MF-CCNc has high anti-amnesic properties and could be a promising candidate for the treatment of AD.

Natural Products-based Drugs: Potential Drug Targets Against Neurological Degeneration

Phytochemicals or natural products have been studied extensively for their potential in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) like Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, etc. The neuronal structure loss and progressive dysfunction are the main characteristics of these diseases. In spite of impressive and thorough knowledge of neurodegenerative molecular pathways, little advancement has been found in the treatment of the same. Moreover, it was proved that natural products can be used efficiently in the treatment of NDs while certain issues regarding the patient's safety and clinical data are still existing. As ND is a bunch of diseases and it will start the myriad of pathological processes, active targeting of the molecular pathway behind ND will be the most efficient strategy to treat all ND-related diseases. The targeting pathway must prevent cell death and should restore the damaged neurons. In the treatment of ND and related diseases, natural products are playing the role of neuroprotective agents. This review will target the therapeutic potential of various phytochemicals which shows neuroprotective action.

Progress in the development of naturally derived active metabolites-based drugs: Potential therapeutics for Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an extensive age-associated neurodegenerative disorder. In spite of wide-ranging progress in understanding the AD pathology for the past 50 years, clinical trials based on the hypothesis of amyloid-beta (Aβ) have reserved worsening particularly at late-stage human trials. Consequently, very few old drugs are presently used for AD with inadequate clinical consequences and various side effects. We focus on widespread pharmacological and beneficial principles for existing as well as future drugs. Multitargeting approaches by means of general antioxidant and anti-inflammatory mechanisms allied with particular receptor and/or enzyme-mediated actions in neuroprotection and neurodegeneration. The plant kingdom comprises a vast range of species with an incredible diversity of bioactive metabolites with diverse chemical scaffolds. In recent times, an increasing body of facts recommended the use of phytochemicals to decelerate AD's onset and progression. The definitive goal of AD investigation is to avert the onset of neurodegeneration, thereby allowing successful aging devoid of cognitive decline. At this point, we discussed the neurological protective role of natural products and naturally derived therapeutic agents for AD from various natural polyphenolic compounds and medicinal plants. In conclusion, medicinal plants act as a chief source of different bioactive constituents.

Recent Studies on Protective Effects of Walnuts against Neuroinflammation

Neuroinflammation plays a significant role in the aging process and the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease. Accordingly, possible therapeutic strategies aimed at anti-inflammatory effects may be beneficial to brain health. Walnut kernels contain large quantities of unsaturated fatty acids, peptides, and phenolic compounds that have anti-inflammatory effects. The long-term intake of walnuts has been found to improve cognitive function and memory in rats and humans. However, the modulatory effect of walnuts on neuroinflammation has received much less attention. This review focuses on the potential influence and main regulating mechanisms of walnuts and their active ingredients on neuroinflammation, including the regulation of microglia activation induced by amyloid β or lipopolysaccharides, inhibition of peripheral inflammation mediated by macrophages, reduction in oxidative stress by decreasing free radical levels and boosting antioxidant defenses, and control of gut microbes to maintain homeostasis. However, the majority of evidence of the beneficial effects of walnuts or their components on neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration comes from experimental work, whereas evidence from clinical studies on the beneficial effects is scarcer and less conclusive. This review aims to provide new insights into the neuroinflammation-regulating mechanisms and natural active ingredients of walnuts and the development of walnut-based functional foods for the alleviation of neurodegenerative diseases.

Medicinal Herbs and Their Derived Ingredients Protect against Cognitive Decline in In Vivo Models of Alzheimer’s Disease

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) has pathological hallmarks including amyloid beta (Aβ) plaque formation. Currently approved single-target drugs cannot effectively ameliorate AD. Medicinal herbs and their derived ingredients (MHDIs) have multitarget and multichannel properties, engendering exceptional AD treatment outcomes. This review delineates how in in vivo models MHDIs suppress Aβ deposition by downregulating β- and γ-secretase activities; inhibit oxidative stress by enhancing the antioxidant activities and reducing lipid peroxidation; prevent tau hyperphosphorylation by upregulating protein phosphatase 2A expression and downregulating glycogen synthase kinase-3β expression; reduce inflammatory mediators partly by upregulating brain-derived neurotrophic factor/extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase 1/2-mediated signaling and downregulating p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK)/c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK)-mediated signaling; attenuate synaptic dysfunction by increasing presynaptic protein, postsynaptic protein, and acetylcholine levels and preventing acetylcholinesterase activity; and protect against neuronal apoptosis mainly by upregulating Akt/cyclic AMP response element-binding protein/B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2)-mediated anti-apoptotic signaling and downregulating p38 MAPK/JNK/Bcl-2-associated x protein (Bax)/caspase-3-, Bax/apoptosis-inducing factor-, C/EBP homologous protein/glucose-regulated protein 78-, and autophagy-mediated apoptotic signaling. Therefore, MHDIs listed in this review protect against Aβ-induced cognitive decline by inhibiting Aβ accumulation, oxidative stress, tau hyperphosphorylation, inflammation, synaptic damage, and neuronal apoptosis in the cortex and hippocampus during the early and late AD phases.

Therapeutic nanotechnologies for Alzheimer's disease: a critical analysis of recent trends and findings

Alzheimer's Disease (AD) is an irreversible neurodegenerative disease for which no disease modifying therapies are presently available. Besides the identification of pathological targets, AD presents numerous clinical and pharmacological challenges such as efficient active delivery to the central nervous system, cell targeting, and long-term dosing. Nanoparticles have been explored to overcome some of these challenges as drug delivery vehicles or drugs themselves. However, early promises have failed to materialize as no nanotechnology-based product has been able to reach the market and very few have moved past preclinical stages. In this review, we perform a critical analysis of the past decade's research on nanomedicine-based therapies for AD at the preclinical and clinical stages. The main obstacles to nanotechnology products and the most promising approaches were also identified, including renewed promise with gene editing, gene modulation, and vaccines.

Saikosaponin-D Mitigates Oxidation in SH-SY5Y Cells Stimulated by Glutamate Through Activation of Nrf2 Pathway: Involvement of PI3K

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a typical neurodegenerative disease. Well-established studies have shown an elevated level of ROS (reactive oxygen species) that induces oxidative stress in AD. Saikosaponin-D exhibited significant therapeutic effects on neurodegenerative diseases. However, its in-depth molecular mechanisms against neurotoxicity remain not fully uncovered. Herein, the possible protective effects of saikosaponin-D on glutamate-induced neurotoxicity in SH-SY5Y cells and the underlying mechanism were elucidated. Saikosaponin-D pretreatment could ameliorate glutamate-induced cytotoxicity according to MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay and depress apoptosis according to Hoechst 33,342 staining and Annexin V-FITC/PI double staining in SH-SY5Y cells. Additionally, saikosaponin-D administration suppressed oxidative stress in response to glutamate indicated by diminished intracellular ROS formation and reduced MDA (malondialdehyde) content in SH-SY5Y cells. These phenomena, appeared to correlate with the recovered cellular antioxidant enzyme activities and inducted HO-1 (heme oxygenase-1) expression accompanying the nuclear translocation of Nrf2 conduct by saikosaponin-D preconditioning which had been altered by glutamate, were correlated with its neuroprotective. Furthermore, addition of LY294002, a selective inhibitor of PI3K (phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase), blocked saikosaponin-D-caused Nrf2 nuclear translocation and reversed the protection of saikosaponin-D against glutamate in SH-SY5Y cells. Moreover, saikosaponin-D exhibited antioxidant potential with high free radical-scavenging activity as confirmed by a DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) and TEAC (Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity) in a cell-free system in vitro. Taken together, our results indicated that saikosaponin-D enhanced cellular antioxidant capacity through not only intrinsic free radical-scavenging activity but also induction of endogenous antioxidant enzyme activities and HO-1 expression mediated, at least in part, by activating PI3K and subsequently Nrf2 nuclear translocation, thereby protecting the SH-SY5Y cells from glutamate-induced oxidative cytotoxicity. In concert, these data raise the possibility that saikosaponin-D may be an attractive candidate for prevention and treatment of AD and other diseases related to oxidation in the future.

Nanoparticle-Guided Brain Drug Delivery: Expanding the Therapeutic Approach to Neurodegenerative Diseases

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) represent a heterogeneous group of aging-related disorders featured by progressive impairment of motor and/or cognitive functions, often accompanied by psychiatric disorders. NDs are denoted as 'protein misfolding' diseases or proteinopathies, and are classified according to their known genetic mechanisms and/or the main protein involved in disease onset and progression. Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD) and Huntington's disease (HD) are included under this nosographic umbrella, sharing histopathologically salient features, including deposition of insoluble proteins, activation of glial cells, loss of neuronal cells and synaptic connectivity. To date, there are no effective cures or disease-modifying therapies for these NDs. Several compounds have not shown efficacy in clinical trials, since they generally fail to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB), a tightly packed layer of endothelial cells that greatly limits the brain internalization of endogenous substances. By engineering materials of a size usually within 1-100 nm, nanotechnology offers an alternative approach for promising and innovative therapeutic solutions in NDs. Nanoparticles can cross the BBB and release active molecules at target sites in the brain, minimizing side effects. This review focuses on the state-of-the-art of nanoengineered delivery systems for brain targeting in the treatment of AD, PD and HD.

Adiponectin: a potential target for obesity-associated Alzheimer's disease

Obesity and dementia are two growing problems worldwide. Obesity act as a crucial risk factor for various diseases including Alzheimer's disease (AD). Several preclinical studies showed that middle-age obesity can be act as a possible feature of mild cognitive impairment in later years. Some studies have also demonstrated that a high-fat diet causes AD pathology, including extracellular amyloid-beta accumulation, hyperphosphorylation of tau, and cognition impairment. The correlation and molecular mechanism related to obesity-associated AD needs to be better evaluated. Presently, obesity results in an altered expression of several hormones, growth factors, and adipokines. Multiple signaling pathways such as leptin, insulin, adiponectin, and glutamate are involved to regulate vital functions in the brain and act as neuroprotective mediators for AD in a normal state. In obesity, altered adiponectin (APN) level and its associated downstream pathway could result in multiple signaling pathway disruption. Presently, Adiponectin and its inducers or agonist are considered as potential therapeutics for obesity-associated AD. This review mainly focuses on the pleiotropic effects of adiponectin and its potential to treat obesity-associated AD.

A Novel Selective PKR Inhibitor Restores Cognitive Deficits and Neurodegeneration in Alzheimer Disease Experimental Models

In Alzheimer disease (AD), the double-strand RNA-dependent kinase protein kinase R (PKR )/EIF2AK2 is activated in brain with increased phosphorylation of its substrate eukaryotic initiation factor 2α (eIF2α). AD risk-promoting factors, such as ApoE4 allele or the accumulation of neurotoxic amyloid-β oligomers (AβOs), have been associated with activation of PKR-dependent signaling. Here, we report the discovery of a novel potent and selective PKR inhibitor (SAR439883) and demonstrate its neuroprotective pharmacological activity in AD experimental models. In ApoE4 human replacement male mice, 1-week oral treatment with SAR439883 rescued short-term memory impairment in the spatial object recognition test and dose-dependently reduced learning and memory deficits in the Barnes maze test. Moreover, in AβO-injected male mice, a 2-week administration of SAR439883 in diet dose-dependently ameliorated the AβO-induced cognitive impairment in both Y-maze and Morris Water Maze, prevented loss of synaptic proteins, and reduced levels of the proinflammatory cytokine interleukin-1β In both mouse models, these effects were associated with a dose-dependent inhibition of brain PKR activity as measured by both PKR occupancy and partial lowering of peIF2α levels. Our results provide evidence that selective pharmacological inhibition of PKR by a small selective molecule can rescue memory deficits and prevent neurodegeneration in animal models of AD-like pathology, suggesting that inhibition of PKR is a potential therapeutic approach for AD. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This study reports the identification of a new small molecule potent and selective protein kinase R (PKR) inhibitor that can prevent cognitive deficits and neurodegeneration in Alzheimer disease (AD) experimental models, including a mouse model expressing the most prevalent AD genetic risk factor ApoE4. With high potency and selectivity, this PKR inhibitor represents a unique tool for investigating the physiological role of PKR and a starting point for developing new drug candidates for AD.

Therapeutic Potential of Natural Products in Treating Neurodegenerative Disorders and Their Future Prospects and Challenges

Natural products derived from plants, as well as their bioactive compounds, have been extensively studied in recent years for their therapeutic potential in a variety of neurodegenerative diseases (NDs), including Alzheimer's (AD), Huntington's (HD), and Parkinson's (PD) disease. These diseases are characterized by progressive dysfunction and loss of neuronal structure and function. There has been little progress in designing efficient treatments, despite impressive breakthroughs in our understanding of NDs. In the prevention and therapy of NDs, the use of natural products may provide great potential opportunities; however, many clinical issues have emerged regarding their use, primarily based on the lack of scientific support or proof of their effectiveness and patient safety. Since neurodegeneration is associated with a myriad of pathological processes, targeting multi-mechanisms of action and neuroprotection approaches that include preventing cell death and restoring the function of damaged neurons should be employed. In the treatment of NDs, including AD and PD, natural products have emerged as potential neuroprotective agents. This current review will highlight the therapeutic potential of numerous natural products and their bioactive compounds thatexert neuroprotective effects on the pathologies of NDs.

Anti-inflammatory Activity of a Polypeptide Fraction From Achyranthes bidentate in Amyloid β Oligomers Induced Model of Alzheimer's Disease

Neuroinflammation plays a crucial role in neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD), and anti-inflammation has been considered as a potential therapeutic strategy. Achyranthes bidentate polypeptide fraction k (ABPPk) was shown to protect neurons from death and suppress microglia and astrocyte activation in PD model mice. However, how ABPPk regulates neuroinflammation to exert a neuroprotective role remains unclear. Toxic Aβ oligomers (AβOs) can trigger inflammatory response and play an important role in the pathogenesis of AD. In the present study, for the first time, we investigated the effects and underlying mechanisms of ABPPk on neuroinflammation in AβOs-induced models of AD. In vitro, ABPPk pretreatment dose-dependently inhibited AβOs-induced pro-inflammatory cytokines mRNA levels in BV2 and primary microglia. ABPPk pretreatment also reduced the neurotoxicity of BV2 microglia-conditioned media on primary hippocampal neurons. Furthermore, ABPPk down-regulated the AβOs-induced phosphorylation of IκBα and NF-κB p65 as well as the expression of NLRP3 in BV2 microglia. In vivo, ABPPk pre-administration significantly improved locomotor activity, alleviated memory deficits, and rescued neuronal degeneration and loss in the hippocampus of AβOs-injected mice. ABPPk inhibited the activation of microglia in hippocampal CA3 region and suppressed the activation of NF-κB as well as the expression of NLRP3, cleaved caspase-1, and ASC in the brain after AβOs injection. ABPPk hindered the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and promoted the release of anti-inflammatory cytokines in the brain. Notably, the polarization experiment on BV2 microglia demonstrated that ABPPk inhibited M1-phenotype polarization and promoted M2-phenotype polarization by activating the LPS- or AβOs-impaired autophagy in microglia. Taken together, our observations indicate that ABPPk can restore the autophagy of microglia damaged by AβOs, thereby promoting M2-phenotype polarization and inhibiting M1-phenotype polarization, thus playing a role in regulating neuroinflammation and alleviating neurotoxicity.

Antioxidative and Anti-inflammatory Effects of Kojic Acid in Aβ-Induced Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a common cause of dementia that is clinically characterized by the loss of memory and cognitive functions. Currently, there is no specific cure for the management of AD, although natural compounds are showing promising therapeutic potentials because of their safety and easy availability. Herein, we evaluated the neuroprotective properties of kojic acid (KA) in an AD mouse model. Intracerebroventricular injection (i.c.v) of Aβ_1-42 (5 μL/5 min/mouse) into wild-type adult mice induced AD-like pathological changes in the mouse hippocampus by increasing oxidative stress and neuroinflammation, affecting memory and cognitive functions. Interestingly, oral treatment of kojic acid (50 mg/kg/mouse for 3 weeks) reversed the AD pathology by reducing the expression of amyloid-beta (Aβ) and beta-site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme1 (BACE-1). Moreover, kojic acid reduced oxidative stress by enhancing the expression of nuclear factor erythroid-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and heme oxygenase 1 (HO1). Also, kojic acid reduced the lipid peroxidation and reactive oxygen species in the Aβ + kojic acid co-treated mice brains. Moreover, kojic acid decreased neuroinflammation by inhibiting Toll-like receptor 4, phosphorylated nuclear factor-κB, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin 1-beta (TLR-4, p-NFκB, TNFα, and IL-1β, respectively), and glial cells. Furthermore, kojic acid enhanced synaptic markers (SNAP-23, SYN, and PSD-95) and memory functions in AD model mice. Additionally, kojic acid treatment also decreased Aβ expression, oxidative stress, and neuroinflammation in vitro in HT-22 mouse hippocampal cells. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to show the neuroprotective effects of kojic acid against an AD mouse model. Our findings could serve as a favorable and alternative strategy for the discovery of novel drugs to treat AD-related neurodegenerative conditions.

Cadmium, an Environmental Contaminant, Exacerbates Alzheimer's Pathology in the Aged Mice's Brain

Cadmium (Cd) is an environmental contaminant, which is a potential risk factor in the progression of aging-associated neurodegenerative diseases. Herein, we have assessed the effects of chronic administration of Cd on cellular oxidative stress and its associated Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathologies in animal models. Two groups of mice were used, one group administered with saline and the other with Cd (1 mg/kg/day; intraperitoneally) for 3 months. After behavioral studies, molecular/biochemical (Immunoblotting, ELISAs, ROS, LPO, and GSH assays) and morphological analyses were performed. We observed an exacerbation of memory and synaptic deficits in chronic Cd-injected mice. Subacute and chronic Cd escalated reactive oxygen species (ROS), suppressed the master antioxidant enzymes, e.g., nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor 2 and heme oxygenase-1, and evoked the stress kinase phospho-c-Jun N-terminal kinase 1 signaling pathways, which may escalate AD pathologies possibly associated with amyloidogenic processes. These findings suggest the regulation of oxidative stress/ROS and its associated amyloid beta pathologies for targeting the Cd-exacerbated AD pathogenesis. In addition, these preclinical animal studies represent a paradigm for epidemiological studies of the human population exposed to chronic and subacute administration of Cd, suggesting avoiding environmental contaminants.

Interaction between extracellular ATP5A1 and LPS alleviates LPS-induced neuroinflammation in mice

Neuroinflammation is one of the main causes of Alzheimer's disease (AD). The presence of Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in senile plaques (SP) of AD suggests that it plays a role in AD pathogenesis. ATP5A1 (F1F0-ATP synthase F1 α subunit) is abundant in SP. Further, the protein has recently been found to have an anti-infection role in zebrafish embryos. In the present study, we observed that LPS levels were higher in the brains of APP/PS1 mice than in control mice, and LPS co-localised with ATP5A1 in amyloid plaques. The interaction of recombinant ATP5A1(rATP5A1) and LPS was evidenced by cellular thermal shift assay and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay-based binding assay in vitro. Neuroinflammation in the brain of a mouse model was induced by intracerebroventricular injection of LPS. The addition of rATP5A1 relieved LPS-induced reduction of spontaneous locomotor ability, depressive-like behaviour, and working memory impairment. Furthermore, rATP5A1 suppressed the activation of astrocytes and microglia, IL-1β accumulation, and tau phosphorylation induced by LPS. Taken together, findings suggest that ATP5A1 is involved in the regulation of LPS-mediated neuroinflammation in AD.

Adiponectin Paradox as a Therapeutic Target in Alzheimer's Disease

Despite the apparent neurotoxicity of amyloid-β (Aβ), recent clinical trials of Aβ immunotherapy have not shown any clinical benefit in Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Given this, clarification of the next generation therapeutic strategy in AD is warranted. Hypothetically, adiponectin might be involved in promoting amyloidogenic evolvability in reproduction, which may result in the adiponectin paradox through antagonistic pleiotropy mechanism in aging, leading to AD. Accordingly, preventing the adiponectin paradox by suppressing adiponectin signaling might prove therapeutic in AD.

ROS Dependent Antifungal and Anticancer Modulations of Piper colubrinum Osmotin

Osmotin, a plant defense protein, has functional similarity to adiponectin, an insulin sensitizingsensitising hormone secreted by adipocytes. We speculated that Piper colubrinum Osmotin (PcOSM) could have functional roles in obesity-related cancers, especially breast cancer. Immunofluorescence assays, flow cytometry, cell cycle analysis and a senescence assay were employed to delineate the activity in MDAMB231 breast cancer cell line. PcOSM pre-treated P. nigrum leaves showed significant reduction in disease symptoms correlated with high ROS production. In silico analysis predicted that PcOSM has higher binding efficiency with adiponectin receptor compared to adiponectin. PcOSM was effectively taken up by MDAMB231 cancer cells which resulted in marked increase in intracellular ROS levels leading to senescence and cell cycle arrest in G2/M stage. This study provides evidence on the ROS mediated direct inhibitory activity of the plant derived osmotin protein on the phytopathogen Phytophthora capsici, and the additional functional roles of this plant defense protein on cancer cells through inducing ROS associated senescence. The strong leads produced from this study could be pursued further to obtain more insights into the therapeutic potential of osmotin in human cancers.

Adiponectin-mimetic novel nonapeptide rescues aberrant neuronal metabolic-associated memory deficits in Alzheimer's disease

Background

Recently, we and other researchers reported that brain metabolic disorders are implicated in Alzheimer’s disease (AD), a progressive, devastating and incurable neurodegenerative disease. Hence, novel therapeutic approaches are urgently needed to explore potential and novel therapeutic targets/agents for the treatment of AD. The neuronal adiponectin receptor 1 (AdipoR1) is an emerging potential target for intervention in metabolic-associated AD. We aimed to validate this hypothesis and explore in-depth the therapeutic effects of an osmotin-derived adiponectin-mimetic novel nonapeptide (Os-pep) on metabolic-associated AD.

Methods

We used an Os-pep dosage regimen (5 μg/g, i.p., on alternating days for 45 days) for APP/PS1 in amyloid β oligomer-injected, transgenic adiponectin knockout (Adipo−/−) and AdipoR1 knockdown mice. After behavioral studies, brain tissues were subjected to biochemical and immunohistochemical analyses. In separate cohorts of mice, electrophysiolocal and Golgi staining experiments were performed. To validate the in vivo studies, we used human APP Swedish (swe)/Indiana (ind)-overexpressing neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells, which were subjected to knockdown of AdipoR1 and APMK with siRNAs, treated with Os-pep and other conditions as per the mechanistic approach, and we proceeded to perform further biochemical analyses.

Results

Our in vitro and in vivo results show that Os-pep has good safety and neuroprotection profiles and crosses the blood-brain barrier. We found reduced levels of neuronal AdipoR1 in human AD brain tissue. Os-pep stimulates AdipoR1 and its downstream target, AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) signaling, in AD and Adipo−/− mice. Mechanistically, in all of the in vivo and in vitro studies, Os-pep rescued aberrant neuronal metabolism by reducing neuronal insulin resistance and activated downstream insulin signaling through regulation of AdipoR1/AMPK signaling to consequently improve the memory functions of the AD and Adipo−/− mice, which was associated with improved synaptic function and long-term potentiation via an AdipoR1-dependent mechanism.

Conclusion

Our findings show that Os-pep activates AdipoR1/AMPK signaling and regulates neuronal insulin resistance and insulin signaling, which subsequently rescues memory deficits in AD and adiponectin-deficient models. Taken together, the results indicate that Os-pep, as an adiponectin-mimetic novel nonapeptide, is a valuable and promising potential therapeutic candidate to treat aberrant brain metabolism associated with AD and other neurodegenerative diseases.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13024-021-00445-4.

Nicotinamide Ameliorates Amyloid Beta-Induced Oxidative Stress-Mediated Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration in Adult Mouse Brain

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most predominant age-related neurodegenerative disease, pathologically characterized by the accumulation of aggregates of amyloid beta Aβ_1–42 and tau hyperphosphorylation in the brain. It is considered to be the primary cause of cognitive dysfunction. The aggregation of Aβ_1–42 leads to neuronal inflammation and apoptosis. Since vitamins are basic dietary nutrients that organisms need for their growth, survival, and other metabolic functions, in this study, the underlying neuroprotective mechanism of nicotinamide (NAM) Vitamin B3 against Aβ_1–42 -induced neurotoxicity was investigated in mouse brains. Intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) Aβ_1–42 injection elicited neuronal dysfunctions that led to memory impairment and neurodegeneration in mouse brains. After 24 h after Aβ_1–42 injection, the mice were treated with NAM (250 mg/kg intraperitoneally) for 1 week. For biochemical and Western blot studies, the mice were directly sacrificed, while for confocal and “immunohistochemical staining”, mice were perfused transcardially with 4% paraformaldehyde. Our biochemical, immunofluorescence, and immunohistochemical results showed that NAM can ameliorate neuronal inflammation and apoptosis by reducing oxidative stress through lowering malondialdehyde and 2,7-dichlorofluorescein levels in an Aβ_1–42-injected mouse brains, where the regulation of p-JNK further regulated inflammatory marker proteins (TNF-α, IL-1β, transcription factor NF-kB) and apoptotic marker proteins (Bax, caspase 3, PARP1). Furthermore, NAM + Aβ treatment for 1 week increased the amount of survival neurons and reduced neuronal cell death in Nissl staining. We also analyzed memory dysfunction via behavioral studies and the analysis showed that NAM could prevent Aβ_1–42 -induced memory deficits. Collectively, the results of this study suggest that NAM may be a potential preventive and therapeutic candidate for Aβ_1–42 -induced reactive oxygen species (ROS)-mediated neuroinflammation, neurodegeneration, and neurotoxicity in an adult mouse model.

Prophylactic Melatonin Treatment Ameliorated Propofol-Induced Cognitive Dysfunction in Aged Rats

Considering the fact that melatonin acts as protective agent in various cognitive impairment, we decided to explore the precise effect of pretreatment with melatonin on cognitive function, mitochondrial activity, apoptosis and synaptic integrity in aged rats anesthetized by propofol. We first randomly allocated the thirty Sprague Dawley rats into three groups: Control vehicle-treated group (Con), Propofol-treated group (Pro) and Melatonin + Propofol group (Mel + Pro). The Barnes maze, open field and contextual fear conditioning test were employed to evaluate spatial memory, exploratory behavior and general locomotor activity, and hippocampus-dependent learning and memory ability, respectively. Moreover, mitochondrial function (including reactive oxygen species, mitochondrial membrane potential and ATP levels) and apoptosis were detected in the regions of hippocampus (HIP) and prefrontal cortex (PFC). The results of behavioral tests suggested that melatonin improved propofol-induced memory impairment in aged rats. Melatonin mitigated mitochondrial dysfunction and decreased the apoptotic cell counts in the regions of HIP and PFC. Furthermore, prophylactic melatonin treatment also reversed the propofol-induced inactivation of PKA/CREB/BDNF signaling and synaptic dysfunction. On the whole, our results indicated that melatonin ameliorated the propofol-induced cognitive disorders via attenuating mitochondrial dysfunction, apoptosis, inactivation of PKA/CREB/BDNF signaling and synaptic dysfunction.

Protective effects of intracerebroventricular adiponectin against olfactory impairments in an amyloid β1-42 rat model

BACKGROUND

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by cognitive impairment that eventually develops into dementia. Amyloid-beta (Aβ) accumulation is a widely described hallmark in AD, and has been reported to cause olfactory dysfunction, a condition considered an early marker of the disease associated with injuries in the olfactory bulb (OB), the hippocampus (HIPP) and other odor-related cortexes. Adiponectin (APN) is an adipokine with neuroprotective effects. Studies have demonstrated that APN administration decreases Aβ neurotoxicity and Tau hyperphosphorylation in the HIPP, reducing cognitive impairment. However, there are no studies regarding the neuroprotective effects of APN in the olfactory dysfunction observed in the Aβ rat model. The aim of the present study is to determine whether the intracerebroventricular (i.c.v) administration of APN prevents the early olfactory dysfunction in an i.c.v Amyloid-beta1-42 (Aβ1-42) rat model. Hence, we evaluated olfactory function by using a battery of olfactory tests aimed to assess olfactory memory, discrimination and detection in the Aβ rat model treated with APN. In addition, we determined the number of cells expressing the neuronal nuclei (NeuN), as well as the number of microglial cells by using the ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1 (Iba-1) marker in the OB and, CA1, CA3, hilus and dentate gyrus (DG) in the HIPP. Finally, we determined Arginase-1 expression in both nuclei through Western blot.

RESULTS

We observed that the i.c.v injection of Aβ decreased olfactory function, which was prevented by the i.c.v administration of APN. In accordance with the olfactory impairment observed in i.c.v Aβ-treated rats, we observed a decrease in NeuN expressing cells in the glomerular layer of the OB, which was also prevented with the i.c.v APN. Furthermore, we observed an increase of Iba-1 cells in CA1, and DG in the HIPP of the Aβ rats, which was prevented by the APN treatment.

CONCLUSION

The present study describes the olfactory impairment of Aβ treated rats and evidences the protective role that APN plays in the brain, by preventing the olfactory impairment induced by Aβ1-42. These results may lead to APN-based pharmacological therapies aimed to ameliorate AD neurotoxic effects.

HMGB1/RAGE/TLR4 axis and glutamate as novel targets for PCSK9 inhibitor in high fat cholesterol diet induced cognitive impairment and amyloidosis

AIMS

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a leading health problem in which increased amyloid β (Aβ) accumulation may occur due to abnormal Aβ precursor protein processing by β-secretase 1 (BACE1) enzyme. Lately, neuro-inflammation was recognized as a significant contributor to its pathogenesis. Although the causes of AD are not yet well understood, much evidence has suggested that dyslipidemia has harmful effects on cognitive function and is inextricably involved in AD pathogenesis. Cholesterol is a vital molecule involved in neuronal development. Alteration in neuronal cholesterol levels affects Aβ metabolism and results in neurodegeneration. Proprotein-convertase-subtilisin/kexin type-9 (PCSK9) was found to decrease neuronal cholesterol uptake by degradation of LDL-receptor related protein 1 (LRP-1) responsible for neuronal cholesterol uptake. Accordingly, this study was designed to evaluate the effect of PCSK9-inhibition by alirocumab (Aliro) in high-fat-cholesterol-diet (HFCD)-induced-AD-like condition.

MAIN METHODS

Wistar Rats were divided into six groups; control; HFCD; HFCD and Memantine; HFCD and Aliro (4, 8 and 16 mg/kg/week) to test for ability of Aliro to modulate cognitive impairment, amyloidosis, brain cholesterol homeostasis and neuro-inflammation in HFCD-induced-AD-like condition.

KEY FINDINGS

Our results demonstrated an association between PCSK9 inhibition by Aliro and amelioration of cognitive deficit, cholesterol hemostasis and reduction of neuro-inflammation. Aliro was able to alleviate hippocampal LRP-1expression levels and reduce brain cholesterol, hippocampal BACE1, Aβ₄₂, high-mobility-group-box-1 protein, receptor for advanced-glycation-end-products and toll like receptor-4 with subsequent decrease of different inflammatory mediators as nuclear-factor-kappa-B (NF-κB), tumor-necrosis-factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-1beta (IL-1β) and IL-6.

SIGNIFICANCE

PCSK9-inhibition may represent a new therapeutic target in AD especially for HFCD-induced-AD-like condition.

Neuroprotective effects of carbenoxolone against amyloid-beta 1-42 oligomer-induced neuroinflammation and cognitive decline in rats

The aggregation of Aβ plays a major role in the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and induces neuroinflammation, neurodegeneration and cognitive decline. Recent studies have shown that the soluble aggregates of Aβ are the major culprits in the development of these aberrations inside the brain. In this study, we investigated the neuroprotective potential of carbenoxolone (Cbx), which has been found to possess anti-inflammatory and nootropic properties. Male SD rats (250-300 g) were divided into the four groups (n = 8 per group): (1) sham control rats injected with vehicles, (2) Aβ 1-42 group rats injected i.c.v. with Aβ 42 oligomers (10 μl/rat), (3) Aβ 1-42+Cbx group rats injected i.c.v. with Aβ 42 oligomers (10 μl/rat) and i.p. with carbenoxolone disodium (20 mg/kg body weight) for six-weeks and (4) Cbx group rats injected i.p. with carbenoxolone disodium (20 mg/kg body weight) for six-weeks. Progressive learning and memory deficits were seen through a battery of behavioral tests and a significant increase in the expressions of GFAP and Iba-1 was observed which resulted in the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines post Aβ oligomer injection. The levels of BDNF, Bcl-2 and pCREB were decreased while Bax, caspase-3, caspase-9 and cytochrome c levels were induced. Also, neurotransmitter levels were altered and neuronal damage was observed through histopathological studies. After Cbx supplementation, the expressions of GFAP, IBA-1, pro-inflammatory cytokines, iNOS, nNOS and nitric oxide levels were normalized. The expression levels of pro-apoptotic markers were decreased and neurotrophin levels were restored. Also, neurotransmitter levels and neuronal profile were improved and progressive improvements in behavioural performance were observed. Our results demonstrated that Cbx might have prevented the Aβ induced neurodegeneration and cognitive decline by inhibiting the neuroinflammation and inducing BDNF/CREB signalling. These findings suggest that Cbx can be explored as a potential therapeutic agent against the progression of AD.

Does COVID-19 contribute to development of neurological disease?

BACKGROUND

Although coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has been associated primarily with pneumonia, recent data show that the causative agent of COVID-19, the coronavirus severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), can infect a large number of vital organs beyond the lungs, such as the heart, kidneys, and the brain. Thus, there is evidence showing possible retrograde transmission of the virus from the olfactory epithelium to regions of the brain stem.

METHODS

This is a literature review article. The research design method is an evidence-based rapid review. The present discourse aim is first to scrutinize and assess the available literature on COVID-19 repercussion on the central nervous system (CNS). Standard literature and database searches were implemented, gathered relevant material, and extracted information was then assessed.

RESULTS

The angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptors being the receptor for the virus, the threat to the central nervous system is expected. Neurons and glial cells express ACE2 receptors in the CNS, and recent studies suggest that activated glial cells contribute to neuroinflammation and the devastating effects of SARS-CoV-2 infection on the CNS. The SARS-CoV-2-induced immune-mediated demyelinating disease, cerebrovascular damage, neurodegeneration, and depression are some of the neurological complications discussed here.

CONCLUSION

This review correlates present clinical manifestations of COVID-19 patients with possible neurological consequences in the future, thus preparing healthcare providers for possible future consequences of COVID-19.

Protective Effect of Dalbergia sissoo Extract Against Amyloid-β (1-42)-induced Memory Impairment, Oxidative Stress, and Neuroinflammation in Rats

Objectives

The ayurvedic literature reports that Dalbergia sissoo, a common medicinal plant for gastric and skin problems, has brain-revitalizing effects. However, the neuroprotective effect of this herb on an amyloid-β (Aβ) 1-42 model of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is yet unknown. The current study describes the protective effect of ethanolic extracts of D. sissoo leaves (EEDS) against Aβ (1-42)-induced cognitive deficit, oxidative stress, and neuroinflammation in rats.

Materials and Methods

EEDS (300 and 500 mg/kg) was orally administered to rats for 2 weeks prior to intracerebroventricular Aβ (1-42) treatment. The neuroprotective effect of EEDS was assessed by evaluating behavioral, biochemical, and neuroinflammatory parameters in the rat hippocampus. Memory function was assessed via the Morris water maze (MWM) task 2 weeks after Aβ (1-42) administration. After 3 weeks, surgery was performed, all biochemical parameters were evaluated, and histopathological examination of the tissues was carried out.

Results

EEDS improved the cognitive ability of Aβ (1-42)-administered rats in the MWM task. It reduced oxidative stress by significantly decreasing nitrite and malondialdehyde levels and increasing catalase activity and glutathione levels in the rat brain. Moreover, EEDS mitigated neuroinflammation in rats by decreasing the concentration of neuroinflammatory markers in a dose-dependent manner.

Conclusion

D. sissoo leaf extract has a beneficial role in alleviating cognitive deficits in AD by modulating cholinergic function, oxidative stress, and neuroinflammation.

Exploring the New Horizon of AdipoQ in Obesity-Related Alzheimer's Dementia

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia, which causes abnormalities in learning, thinking, memory, as well as behavior. Generally, symptoms of AD develop gradually and aggravate over time, and consequently severely interfere with daily activities. Furthermore, obesity is one of the common risk factors for dementia. Dysregulation of adipokine and adipocyte dysfunction are assumed to be accountable for the high risk of obesity in people that develop many related disorders such as AD. Moreover, it has been observed that the dysfunction of adipose is connected with changes in brain metabolism, brain atrophy, cognitive decline, impaired mood, neuroinflammation, impaired insulin signaling, and neuronal dysfunction in people with obesity. Conversely, the pathological mechanisms, as well as the molecular players which are involved in this association, have been unclear until now. In this article, we discuss the impact of adiponectin (AdipoQ) on obesity-related Alzheimer's dementia.

Characterization of Three Osmotin-Like Proteins from Plumeria rubra and Prospection for Adiponectin Peptidomimetics

BACKGROUND

Osmotin-Like Proteins (OLPs) have been purified and characterized from different plant tissues, including latex fluids. Besides its defensive role, tobacco osmotin seems to induce adiponectin-like physiological effects, acting as an agonist. However, molecular information about this agonistic effect on adiponectin receptors has been poorly exploited and other osmotins have not been investigated yet.

OBJECTIVE AND METHODS

The present study involved the characterization of three OLPs from Plumeria rubra latex and molecular docking studies to evaluate the interaction between them and adiponectin receptors (AdipoR1 and AdipoR2).

RESULTS

P. rubra Osmotin-Like Proteins (PrOLPs) exhibited molecular masses from 21 to 25 kDa and isoelectric points ranging from 4.4 to 7.7. The proteins have 16 cysteine residues, which are involved in eight disulfide bonds, conserved in the same positions as other plant OLPs. The threedimensional (3D) models exhibited the three typical domains of OLPs, and molecular docking analysis showed that two PrOLP peptides interacted with two adiponectin receptors similarly to tobacco osmotin peptide.

CONCLUSION

As observed for tobacco osmotin, the latex osmotins of P. rubra exhibited compatible interactions with adiponectin receptors. Therefore, these plant defense proteins (without known counterparts in humans) are potential tools to study modulation of glucose metabolism in type II diabetes, where adiponectin plays a pivotal role in homeostasis.

AGLPM and QMDDQ peptides exert a synergistic action on memory improvement against scopolamine-induced amnesiac mice

This study aimed to explore the synergistic action of pentapeptides Gln-Met-Asp-Asp-Gln (QMDDQ) and Ala-Gly-Leu-Pro-Met (AGLPM) on memory improvement against scopolamine-induced impairment in mice compared to those of either peptide alone. In behavioral tests, the codelivery of QMDDQ and AGLPM was superior to the individual supplements of either peptide alone not only in enhancing the memory ability at training trials but also in recovering the memory impairment in scopolamine-induced amnesiac mice in test trials. Furthermore, combination treatment with QMDDQ and AGLPM could significantly reduce the acetylcholinesterase (AChE) level and increase the acetylcholine (ACh) level in the hippocampus, and noticeably improve the pathological morphology of the neuron cells in hippocampal regions CA1 and CA2 and dentate gyrus (DG). The findings indicated that the combination treatment with QMDDQ and AGLPM could improve the memory function by regulating the cholinergic system.

Quinovic Acid Impedes Cholesterol Dyshomeostasis, Oxidative Stress, and Neurodegeneration in an Amyloid-β-Induced Mouse Model

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder typified by several neuropathological features including amyloid-beta (Aβ) plaque and neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs). Cholesterol retention and oxidative stress (OS) are the major contributors of elevated β- and γ-secretase activities, leading to excessive Aβ deposition, signifying the importance of altered cholesterol homeostasis and OS in the progression of Aβ-mediated neurodegeneration and cognitive deficit. However, the effect of Aβ on cholesterol metabolism is lesser-known. In this study, we evaluated the effect of quinovic acid (QA; 50 mg/kg body weight, i.p.) against the intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) injection of Aβ (1-42)-induced cholesterol dyshomeostasis, oxidative stress, and neurodegeneration in the cortex and hippocampal brain regions of wild-type male C57BL/6J mice. Our results indicated that Aβ (1-42)-treated mice have increased Aβ oligomer formation along with increased β-secretase expression. The enhanced amyloidogenic pathway in Aβ (1-42)-treated mice intensified brain cholesterol accumulation due to increased expressions of p53 and 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase (HMGCR) enzyme. Importantly, we further confirmed the p53-mediated HMGCR axis activation by using pifithrin-α (PFT) in SH-SY5Y cells. Furthermore, the augmented brain cholesterol levels were also associated with increased OS. However, the QA administration to Aβ (1-42)-injected mice significantly ameliorated the Aβ burden, p53 expression, and cholesterol accumulation by deterring the oxidative stress through upregulating the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway. Moreover, the QA downregulated gliosis, neuroinflammatory mediators (p-NF-κB and IL-1β), and the expression of mitochondrial apoptotic markers (Bax, cleaved caspase-3, and cytochrome c). QA treatment also reversed the deregulated synaptic markers (PSD-95 and synaptophysin) and improved spatial learning and memory behaviors in the Aβ-treated mouse brains. These results suggest that Aβ (1-42) induces its acute detrimental effects on cognitive functions probably by increasing brain cholesterol levels through a possible activation of the p53/HMGCR axis. However, QA treatment reduces the cholesterol-induced oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and neurodegeneration, leading to the restoration of cognitive deficit after Aβ (1-42) i.c.v. injection in mice.

Evidences for agmatine alterations in Aβ1-42induced memory impairment in mice

Alzheimer's disease is an age related progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by decline in cognitive functions, such as memory loss and behavioural abnormalities. The present study sought to assess alterations in agmatine metabolism in the beta-amyloid (Aβ_1-42) Alzheimer's disease mouse model. Aβ_1-42 injected mice showed impairment of cognitive functioning as evidenced by increased working and reference memory errors in radial arm maze (RAM). This cognitive impairment was associated with a reduction in the agmatine levels and elevation in its degrading enzyme, agmatinase, whereas reduced immunocontent was observed in its synthesizing enzyme arginine decarboxylase expression within hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. Chronic agmatine treatment and its endogenous modulation by l-arginine, or arcaine or aminoguanidine prevented the learning and memory impairment induced by single intracranial Aβ_1-42 peptide injection. In conclusion, the present study suggests the importance of the endogenous agmatinergic system in β-amyloid induced memory impairment in mice.

Anti-Amnesic Effect of Walnut via the Regulation of BBB Function and Neuro-Inflammation in Aβ1-42-Induced Mice

This study was conducted to assess the protective effect of walnut (Juglans regia L.) extract on amyloid beta (Aβ)_1-42-induced institute of cancer research (ICR) mice. By conducting a Y-maze, passive avoidance, and Morris water maze tests with amyloidogenic mice, it was found that walnut extract ameliorated behavioral dysfunction and memory deficit. The walnut extract showed a protective effect on the antioxidant system and cholinergic system by regulating malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, superoxide dismutase (SOD) contents, reduced glutathione (GSH) contents, acetylcholine (ACh) levels, acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity, and protein expression of AChE and choline acetyltransferase (ChAT). Furthermore, the walnut extract suppressed Aβ-induced abnormality of mitochondrial function by ameliorating reactive oxygen species (ROS), mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), and ATP contents. Finally, the walnut extract regulated the expression of zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1) and occludin concerned with blood–brain barrier (BBB) function, expression of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 (TNFR1), phosphorylated c-Jun N-terminal kinase (p-JNK), phosphorylated nuclear factor of kappa light polypeptide gene enhancer in B-cells inhibitor (p-IκB), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β), related to neuroinflammation and the expression of phosphorylated protein kinase B (p-Akt), caspase-3, hyperphosphorylation of tau (p-tau), and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), associated with the Aβ-related Akt pathway.

Moderate treadmill exercise improves spatial learning and memory deficits possibly via changing PDE-5, IL-1 β and pCREB expression

Alzheimer's is a progressive disorder of the nervous system. Prior studies suggested that physical activity contributes to the improvement of cognitive impairment and slows down pathogenesis of AD; however, the exact mechanisms for this have not been fully understood. Therefore, in this study, we examined the effect of aerobic training before and after induction of Alzheimer's on spatial learning and memory, expression of interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), cAMP-responsive element-binding protein (pCREB), and Phosphodiesterase-5 (PDE-5) in the hippocampus of male rats Wistar. Aβ was microinjected into the CA1 area of the hippocampus animals. The moderate treadmill exercise protocols for pre and post induction of Alzheimer's were the same (5 days/week, for 4 weeks with a customized regime). The Morris Water Maze (MWM) method has been to assess spatial learning and memory. The real time-PCR method was used to measure gene expression. Our results showed that intra-hippocampal injection of Aβ1-42 impaired spatial learning and memory which was accompanied by reduced pCREB activity and elevated IL-1β and PDE-5 in the hippocampus of rats. In contrast, moderate treadmill exercise ameliorated the Aβ1-42-induced spatial learning and memory deficit, which was accompanied by restored pCREB activity and decreasing IL-1β and PDE-5 levels. In conclusion, our finding suggests that exercise before and after Alzheimer's induction leads to an increase in pCREB and an alleviation of inflammation which likely involved in ameliorating spatial learning and memory deficits in an animal model of AD.

Lupeol, a Plant-Derived Triterpenoid, Protects Mice Brains against Aβ-Induced Oxidative Stress and Neurodegeneration

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that represents 60–70% of all dementia cases. AD is characterized by the formation and accumulation of amyloid-beta (Aβ) plaques, neurofibrillary tangles, and neuronal cell loss. Further accumulation of Aβ in the brain induces oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and synaptic and memory dysfunction. In this study, we investigated the antioxidant and neuroprotective effects of the natural triterpenoid lupeol in the Aβ_1-42 mouse model of AD. An Intracerebroventricular injection (i.c.v.) of Aβ (3 µL/5 min/mouse) into the brain of a mouse increased the reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, neuroinflammation, and memory and cognitive dysfunction. The oral administration of lupeol at a dose of 50 mg/kg for two weeks significantly decreased the oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and memory impairments. Lupeol decreased the oxidative stress via the activation of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor-2 (Nrf-2) and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) in the brain of adult mice. Moreover, lupeol treatment prevented neuroinflammation by suppressing activated glial cells and inflammatory mediators. Additionally, lupeol treatment significantly decreased the accumulation of Aβ and beta-secretase-1 (BACE-1) expression and enhanced the memory and cognitive function in the Aβ-mouse model of AD. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to investigate the anti-oxidative and neuroprotective effects of lupeol against Aβ_1-42-induced neurotoxicity. Our findings suggest that lupeol could serve as a novel, promising, and accessible neuroprotective agent against progressive neurodegenerative diseases such as AD.

Adiponectin: The Potential Regulator and Therapeutic Target of Obesity and Alzheimer's Disease

Animal and human mechanistic studies have consistently shown an association between obesity and Alzheimer’s disease (AD). AD, a degenerative brain disease, is the most common cause of dementia and is characterized by the presence of extracellular amyloid beta (Aβ) plaques and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles disposition. Some studies have recently demonstrated that Aβ and tau cannot fully explain the pathophysiological development of AD and that metabolic disease factors, such as insulin, adiponectin, and antioxidants, are important for the sporadic onset of nongenetic AD. Obesity prevention and treatment can be an efficacious and safe approach to AD prevention. Adiponectin is a benign adipokine that sensitizes the insulin receptor signaling pathway and suppresses inflammation. It has been shown to be inversely correlated with adipose tissue dysfunction and may enhance the risk of AD because a range of neuroprotection adiponectin mechanisms is related to AD pathology alleviation. In this study, we summarize the recent progress that addresses the beneficial effects and potential mechanisms of adiponectin in AD. Furthermore, we review recent studies on the diverse medications of adiponectin that could possibly be related to AD treatment, with a focus on their association with adiponectin. A better understanding of the neuroprotection roles of adiponectin will help clarify the precise underlying mechanism of AD development and progression.

Ginsenoside Rg1 reduces β‑amyloid levels by inhibiting CDΚ5‑induced PPARγ phosphorylation in a neuron model of Alzheimer's disease

The accumulation of β-amyloid peptides (Aβ) in the brain is a hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Studies have indicated that ginsenoside Rg1, a primary component of ginseng (Panax ginseng), reduces brain Aβ levels in an AD model through peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ), thereby regulating the expression of insulin-degrading enzyme (Ide) and β-amyloid cleavage enzyme 1 (Bace1), which are PPARγ target genes. However, the effects of ginsenoside Rg1 on PPARγ remain unclear. Since cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (CDK5) mediates PPARγ phosphorylation in adipose tissue, this study aimed to investigate whether ginsenoside Rg1 regulates PPARγ target genes and reduces Aβ levels by inhibiting PPARγ phosphorylation through the CDK5 pathway. In the present study, a model of AD was established by treating primary cultured rat hippocampal neurons with Aβ_1-42. The cells were pretreatment with ginsenoside Rg1 and roscovitine, a CDK5-inhibitor, prior to the treatment with Aβ_1-42. Neuronal apoptosis was detected using TUNEL staining. PPARγ phosphorylation and protein expression levels of PPARγ, CDK5, IDE, BACE1, amyloid precursor protein (APP) and Aβ_1-42 were measured by western blotting. The mRNA expression levels of PPARγ, CDK5, IDE, BACE1 and APP were assessed using reverse transcription-quantitative PCR. The results of the present study demonstrated that in an AD model induced by Aβ_1-42, ginsenoside Rg1 significantly decreased CDK5 expression, inhibited PPARγ phosphorylation at serine 273, elevated IDE expression, downregulated BACE1 and APP expression, decreased Aβ_1-42 levels and attenuated neuronal apoptosis. The CDK5 inhibitor, roscovitine, demonstrated similar effects. These results suggest that ginsenoside Rg1 has neuroprotective properties and has potential for use in the treatment of AD.