MAIT cell activation augments adenovirus vector vaccine immunogenicity

BNT162b2 COVID-19 vaccination elicits the expansion of CD16+CD8+ T cells endowed with natural killer cell features

BACKGROUND

The Pfizer-BioNtech vaccine, also known as BNT162b2, was developed using a novel technology based on mRNA and protects against coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) via induction of specific antibody and T-cell responses. Much less is known about the broader effects of this new class of vaccines on unconventional cellular components of the immune system.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to characterize a subset of unconventional T cells emerging following BNT162b2 mRNA vaccination.

METHODS

Peripheral blood from a total of 30 human healthy individuals who received 2 doses of the BNT162b2 mRNA vaccine was collected for the analysis of T-cell compartment by using multiparametric flow cytometry and single-cell transcriptome analyses.

RESULTS

In the peripheral blood of individuals undergoing BNT162b2 vaccination, we observed a sizable fraction of CD8+ T cells expressing CD16, a low-affinity FcR for IgG. These cells were severe acute respiratory coronavirus 2-specific, characterized by IFN-γ response gene transcripts and stimulation through CD16 and other natural killer (NK)-cell innate receptors elicited a functional response. Both CD16 and NKp30 could be induced on NKp80+ CD8+ T cells and the engagement of NKp80 in combination with CD16 resulted in synergic effects. CD16+ CD8+ T cells also showed a high expression of the inhibitory receptor G protein-coupled receptor 56 (GPR56), capable of limiting their activation via CD16.

CONCLUSIONS

These data indicate that BNT162b2 COVID-19 vaccination provides an additional large fraction of antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC)-capable effector cells, endowed with innate functions and therefore able to potentially counteract a much wider array of diseases, including cancer.

Unconventional T Cells' Role in Cancer: Unlocking Their Hidden Potential to Guide Tumor Immunity and Therapy

Unconventional T (UC T) cells, including invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells, mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells, γδ T cells, and double-negative (DN) T cells, are key players in immune surveillance and response due to their properties combining innate-like and adaptive-like features. These cells are widely present in mucosal tissues, where they can rapidly respond to infections and tumor-associated changes. In fact, UC T cells can have both pro- and anti-tumoral effects, with their activity influenced by factors such as microbial composition and the tumor microenvironment. In particular, intratumoral microbiota significantly impacts the development, function, and activation of UC T cells, influencing cytokine production and shaping the immune response in various cancers. The complex crosstalk between UC T cells and the surrounding factors is discussed in this review, with a focus on how these cells might be interesting candidates to explore and exploit as anticancer therapeutic agents. However, the great potential of UC T cells, not only demonstrated in the context of adoptive cell transfer, but also enhanced through techniques of engineering, is still flanked by different challenges, like the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment and heterogeneity of target molecules associated with some specific categories of tumors, like gastrointestinal cancers.

Herpes simplex virus type 1 impairs mucosal-associated invariant T cells

Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) is a highly successful pathogen that infects mucosal sites and adopts an arsenal of strategies to manipulate host immunity. Mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells are abundant innate-like T lymphocytes that recognize bacterial and fungal-derived vitamin B-related metabolites presented by major histocompatibility complex class I-related protein 1 (MR1). MAIT cells can also be activated in an MR1-independent manner via cytokine stimulation, predominantly by IL-12 and IL-18. MAIT cell alterations have been identified as being associated with a number of viral infections, but direct interactions between viruses and MAIT cells are poorly understood. It is unknown whether HSV-1 can infect MAIT cells and modulate their functions. Here, we show that HSV-1 can infect primary human MAIT cells, including CD4±/CD8± and CD56± MAIT cell subpopulations. Furthermore, HSV-1 infection profoundly inhibits the functional capacity of MAIT cells to respond to T cell receptor (TCR)-dependent stimulation by the MAIT cell activating ligand 5-(2-oxopropylideneamino)-6-D-ribitylaminouracil (5-OP-RU) and to cytokine stimulation by IL-12/IL-18. HSV-1-infected MAIT cells display reduced cytotoxic potential, diminished synthesis of effector cytokines, and decreased expression of key cytokine receptors including IL-18R. In addition, MAIT cells exposed to HSV-1-infected fibroblasts but which remained uninfected (viral GFP-negative) also exhibit a suppressed effector response to TCR-dependent stimulation. The functional suppression of HSV-1-exposed MAIT cells was not mediated by a soluble factor within the supernatant, suggesting direct contact of MAIT cells with HSV-1-infected fibroblasts is required. Overall, this study reveals that HSV-1 can infect MAIT cells and substantially impair MAIT cell effector functions.

IMPORTANCE

Mucosal-associated invariant T cells (MAIT cells) are "unconventional" immune cells that are becoming increasingly appreciated to play important roles in a variety of viral infections. Herpes simplex virus (HSV) causes significant human disease and is a master manipulator of multiple immune functions, but how this virus may control MAIT cells is poorly understood. We discovered that HSV can infect human MAIT cells and impair their functional capacity and also show that MAIT cells exposed to HSV, but which do not show evidence of infection, are similarly impaired. This study therefore identifies an additional immunomodulatory function of HSV.

Intraepithelial lymphocytes in human oral diseases

Objective

As a distinctive subset of T cells, intraepithelial lymphocytes (IELs) are found in the epithelium of mucosal barrier and serve as the primary defenders of the intestinal mucosal immune system. IELs exhibit phenotypic and functional diversity with high expression of activated marker molecules, tissue-homing integrins, NK cell receptors, cytotoxic T cell-related molecules, and cytokines. Meanwhile, IELs demonstrate differentiation plasticity, antigen recognition diversity, self-reactivity, and rapid "memory" effect, which enable them to play a crucial role in regulating responses, maintaining mucosal barriers, promoting immune tolerance, and providing resistance to infections. In addition, IELs have been explored in autoimmune diseases, inflammatory diseases, and cancers. However, the specific involvement and underlying mechanisms of IELs in oral diseases have not been systematically discussed.

Methods

A systematic literature review was conducted using the PubMed/MEDLINE databases to identify and analyze relevant literatures on the roles of IELs in oral diseases.

Results

The literature review revealed the characteristics of IELs and emphasized the potential roles of IELs in the pathogenesis of oral lichen planus, oral cancers, periodontal diseases, graft-versus-host disease, and primary Sjogren's syndrome.

Conclusion

This review mainly focuses on the involvement of IELs in oral diseases, with a particular emphasis on the main functions and underlying mechanisms by which IELs influence the pathogenesis and progression of these conditions.

Development and Functions of MAIT Cells

Mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells are evolutionarily conserved T cells that recognize microbial metabolites. They are abundant in humans and conserved during mammalian evolution, which suggests that they have important nonredundant functions. In this article, we discuss the evolutionary conservation of MAIT cells and describe their original developmental process. MAIT cells exert a wide variety of effector functions, from killing infected cells and promoting inflammation to repairing tissues. We provide insights into these functions and discuss how they result from the context of stimulation encountered by MAIT cells in different tissues and pathological settings. We describe how MAIT cell numbers and features are modified in disease states, focusing mainly on in vivo models. Lastly, we discuss emerging strategies to manipulate MAIT cells for therapeutic purposes.

Mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cell responses in Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi strain Ty21a oral vaccine recipients

Mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells are unconventional innate-like T cells abundant in human mucosal tissues and are associated with protective responses to microbial infections. MAIT cells have the capacity for rapid effector functions, including the secretion of cytokines and cytotoxic molecules. In this study, we examined the longitudinal circulating MAIT cell response to the live attenuated oral vaccine Ty21a (Ty21a) against Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi (S. Typhi). We enrolled healthy adults who received a course of oral live-attenuated S. Typhi strain Ty21a vaccine and assessed peripheral blood MAIT cell longitudinal responses pre-vaccination, and at seven days and one-month post-vaccination, using flow cytometry, cell migration, and tetramer decay assays. We showed that following vaccination, circulating MAIT cells were lower in frequency, but were more activated, and had higher levels of gut-homing marker integrin α4β7 and chemokine receptors CCR9 and CCR6, suggesting the potential of MAIT cells to migrate to mucosal sites. We found no significant differences in MAIT cell functionality, cytotoxicity and T-cell receptor avidity, except in TNF expression, which was higher post-vaccination. We show that MAIT cell immune responses are modulated post-vaccination against S. Typhi. This study contributes to our understanding of MAIT cells' potential role in oral vaccination against bacterial mucosal pathogens.

MAIT cells protect against sterile lung injury

Mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells, the most abundant unconventional T cells in the lung, can exhibit a wide range of functional responses to different triggers via their T cell receptor (TCR) and/or cytokines. Their role, especially in sterile lung injury, is unknown. Using single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq), spectral analysis, and adoptive transfer in a bleomycin-induced sterile lung injury, we found that bleomycin activates murine pulmonary MAIT cells and is associated with a protective role against bleomycin-induced lung injury. MAIT cells drive the accumulation of type 1 conventional dendritic cells (cDC1s), limiting tissue damage in a DNGR-1-dependent manner. Human scRNA-seq data revealed that MAIT cells were activated, with increased cDC populations in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis patients. Thus, MAIT cells enhance defense against sterile lung injury by fostering cDC1-driven anti-fibrotic pathways.

IL-23 tunes inflammatory functions of human mucosal-associated invariant T cells

IL-23 signaling plays a key role in the pathogenesis of chronic inflammatory and infectious diseases, yet the cellular targets and signaling pathways affected by this cytokine remain poorly understood. We show that IL-23 receptors are expressed on the large majority of human mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT), but not of conventional T cells. Protein and transcriptional profiling at the population and single cell level demonstrates that stimulation with IL-23 or the structurally related cytokine IL-12 drives distinct functional profiles, revealing a high level of plasticity of MAIT cells. IL-23, in particular, affects key molecules and pathways related to autoimmunity and cytotoxic functions. Integrated analysis of transcriptomes and chromatin accessibility, supported by CRISPR-Cas9 mediated deletion, shows that AP-1 transcription factors constitute a key regulatory node of the IL-23 pathway in MAIT cells. In conclusion, our findings indicate that MAIT cells are key mediators of IL-23 functions in immunity to infections and chronic inflammatory diseases.

The Role of Mucosal-Associated Invariant T Cells in Viral Infections and Their Function in Vaccine Development

Mucosal-Associated Invariant T (MAIT) cells, which bridge innate and adaptive immunity, have emerged as an important player in viral infections despite their inability to directly recognize viral antigens. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of MAIT cell responses across different viral infections, revealing consistent patterns in their behavior and function. We discuss the dynamics of MAIT cells during various viral infections, including changes in their frequency, activation status, and functional characteristics. Particular attention is given to emerging strategies for MAIT-cell-targeted vaccine development, including the use of MR1 ligands as mucosal adjuvants and the activation of MAIT cells through viral vectors and mRNA vaccines. Current knowledge of MAIT cell biology in viral infections provides promising approaches for harnessing their functions in vaccine development.

MAIT cells modulating the oral lichen planus immune microenvironment: a cellular crosstalk perspective

Mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells, a type of T lymphocytes with innate-like characteristics, are crucial in bridging innate and adaptive immunity. When activated, MAIT cells release various inflammatory molecules and swiftly respond to antigens. Notably, numerous studies highlight the significant impact of MAIT cells on tumors and various immune disorders by influencing the immune microenvironment. Oral lichen planus (OLP) is an immune-mediated inflammatory condition mainly involving T lymphocytes. Previous research primarily focused on T cells alone, neglecting the broader immune environment. However, there is a current growing recognition of the complex interactions among multiple immune cells and inflammatory factors in patients with OLP. This immune microenvironment comprises T lymphocytes, fibroblasts, keratinocytes, dendritic cells, macrophages, inflammation-related cytokines, and chemokines, orchestrating intricate interactions that contribute to OLP initiation and persistence. Therefore, this review consolidates current research on the interplay between MAIT cells and other immune cells within the OLP microenvironment. We also delve into potential mechanisms through which MAIT cells regulate inflammation in patients with OLP, aiming to further explore the role of MAIT cells in these patients.

scImmOmics: a manually curated resource of single-cell multi-omics immune data

Single-cell sequencing technology has enabled the discovery and characterization of subpopulations of immune cells with unique functions, which is critical for revealing immune responses under healthy or disease conditions. Efforts have been made to collect and curate single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) data, yet an immune-specific single-cell multi-omics atlas with harmonized metadata is still lacking. Here, we present scImmOmics (https://bio.liclab.net/scImmOmics/home), a manually curated single-cell multi-omics immune database constructed based on high-quality immune cells with known immune cell labels. Currently, scImmOmics documents >2.9 million cell-type labeled immune cells derived from seven single-cell sequencing technologies, involving 131 immune cell types, 47 tissues and 4 species. To ensure data consistency, we standardized the nomenclature of immune cell types and presented them in a hierarchical tree structure to clearly describe the lineage relationships within the immune system. scImmOmics also provides comprehensive immune regulatory information, including T-cell/B-cell receptor sequencing clonotype information, cell-specific regulatory information (e.g. gene/chromatin accessibility/protein/transcription factor states within known cell types, cell-to-cell communication and co-expression networks) and immune cell responses to cytokines. Collectively, scImmOmics is a comprehensive and valuable platform for unraveling the heterogeneity and diversity of immune cells and elucidating the specific regulatory mechanisms at the single-cell level.

MAIT cells: Conserved watchers on the wall

MAIT cells are innate-like T cells residing in barrier tissues such as the lung, skin, and intestine. Both the semi-invariant T cell receptor of MAIT cells and the restricting element MR1 are deeply conserved across mammals, indicating non-redundant functions linked to antigenic specificity. MAIT cells across species concomitantly express cytotoxicity and tissue-repair genes, suggesting versatile functions. Accordingly, MAIT cells contribute to antibacterial responses as well as to the repair of damaged barrier tissues. MAIT cells recognize riboflavin biosynthetic pathway-derived metabolites, which rapidly cross epithelial barriers to be presented by antigen-presenting cells. Changes in gut ecology during intestinal inflammation drive the expansion of strong riboflavin and MAIT ligand producers. Thus, MAIT cells may enable real-time surveillance of microbiota dysbiosis across intact epithelia and provide rapid and context-dependent responses. Here, we discuss recent findings regarding the origin and regulation of MAIT ligands and the role of MAIT cells in barrier tissues. We speculate on the potential reasons for MAIT cell conservation during evolution.

Distinct Requirements for CD4+ T Cell Help for Immune Responses Induced by mRNA and Adenovirus-Vector SARS-CoV-2 Vaccines

CD4+ T cells have been established as central orchestrators of cellular and humoral immune responses to infection or vaccination. However, the need for CD4+ T cell help to generate primary CD8+ T cell responses is variable depending on the infectious agent or vaccine and yet consistently required for the recall of CD8+ T cell memory responses or antibody responses. Given the deployment of new vaccine platforms such as nucleoside-modified mRNA vaccines, we sought to elucidate the requirement for CD4+ T cell help in the induction of cellular and antibody responses to mRNA and adenovirus (Ad)-vectored vaccines against SARS-CoV-2. Using antibody-mediated depletion of CD4+ T cells in a mouse immunization model, we observed that CD4+ T cell help was dispensable for both primary and secondary CD8+ T cell responses to the BNT162b2 and mRNA-1273 mRNA vaccines but required for the AZD1222 Ad-vectored vaccine. Nonetheless, CD4+ T cell help was needed by both mRNA and Ad-vectored vaccine platforms for the generation of antibodies, demonstrating the centrality of CD4+ T cells in vaccine-induced protective immunity against SARS-CoV-2. Ultimately, this highlights the shared and distinct regulation of humoral and cellular responses induced by these vaccine platforms.

Nasal mRNA Nanovaccine with Key Activators of Dendritic and MAIT Cells for Effective Against Lung Tumor Metastasis in Mice Model

Background

Lung metastasis is a leading cause of cancer-related death. mRNA-based cancer vaccines have been demonstrated to be effective at inhibiting tumor growth. Intranasal immunization has emerged as a more effective method of inducing local immune responses against cancer cells in the lungs.

Methods

An innovative layered double hydroxide- and 5-OP-RU-based mRNA nanovaccine (Mg/Al LDH-5-OP-RU/mRNA) was synthesized via coprecipitation. The particle size distribution and zeta potential were measured, and the nanovaccine was observed by transmission electron microscopy. The functions and properties of the nanovaccine were evaluated via an mRNA-targeted delivery assay and measurement of dendritic cell (DC) and mucosa-associated invariant T (MAIT) cell maturation and activation. In addition, the cytotoxicity, antigen-specific T cell activation, cytokines, protective ability, and therapeutic ability of the nanovaccine were assessed in a mouse tumor model. Further, the immune cell composition was evaluated in tumors.

Results

The Mg/Al LDH-5-OP-RU/mRNA nanovaccine was efficiently delivered into lung-draining mediastinal lymph nodes (MLNs), and it activated dendritic cells (DCs) and mucosa-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells after intranasal administration. Moreover, the optimized dual-activating mRNA nanovaccine efficiently transfected DC cells and expressed antigen proteins in DC cells. An HPV-associated tumor model revealed that the intranasal delivery of the Mg/Al LDH-5-OP-RU/E7 mRNA nanovaccine significantly prevented the lung metastasis of tumors and had a therapeutic effect on established metastatic tumor nodules in the lungs. Mechanistically, the enhanced activation of DC and MAIT cells induced by the Mg/Al LDH-5-OP-RU/E7 mRNA nanovaccine increased the production of immune-stimulating cytokines and decreased the secretion of immunosuppressive cytokines, which led to the expansion and activation of memory T cells targeting the E7 antigen, a reduction in the population of neutrophils, and differentiation of tumor -associated macrophages to the M1 phenotype in the lungs.

Conclusion

These results highlight the potential of the innovative nasal mRNA nanovaccine for both preventing and treating tumor metastasis in the lungs.

Mucosal associated invariant T cells: Powerhouses of the lung

The lungs face constant environmental challenges from harmless molecules, airborne pathogens and harmful agents that can damage the tissue. The lungs' immune system includes numerous tissue-resident lymphocytes that contribute to maintain tissue homeostasis and to the early initiation of immune responses. Amongst tissue-resident lymphocytes, Mucosal Associated Invariant T (MAIT) cells are present in human and murine lungs and emerging evidence supports their contribution to immune responses during infections, chronic inflammatory disorders and cancer. This review explores the mechanisms underpinning MAIT cell functions in the airways, their impact on lung immunity and the potential for targeting pulmonary MAIT cells in a therapeutic context.

The microbiota: a crucial mediator in gut homeostasis and colonization resistance

The gut microbiota is a complex and diverse community of microorganisms that colonizes the human gastrointestinal tract and influences various aspects of human health. These microbes are closely related to enteric infections. As a foreign entity for the host, commensal microbiota is restricted and regulated by the barrier and immune system in the gut and contributes to gut homeostasis. Commensals also effectively resist the colonization of pathogens and the overgrowth of indigenous pathobionts by utilizing a variety of mechanisms, while pathogens have developed strategies to subvert colonization resistance. Dysbiosis of the microbial community can lead to enteric infections. The microbiota acts as a pivotal mediator in establishing a harmonious mutualistic symbiosis with the host and shielding the host against pathogens. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the mechanisms underlying host-microbiome and microbiome-pathogen interactions, highlighting the multi-faceted roles of the gut microbiota in preventing enteric infections. We also discuss the applications of manipulating the microbiota to treat infectious diseases in the gut.

Role of mucosal-associated invariant T cells in coronavirus disease 2019 vaccine immunogenicity

Mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells are an unconventional T cell population that are highly abundant in humans. They possess a semi-invariant T cell receptor (TCR) that recognises microbial metabolites formed during riboflavin biosynthesis, presented on a nonpolymorphic MHC-like molecule MR1. MAIT cells possess an array of effector functions, including type 1, type 17, and tissue repair activity. Deployment of these functions depends on the stimuli they receive through their TCR and/or cytokine receptors. Strong cytokine signalling, such as in response to vaccination, can bypass TCR triggering and provokes a strong proinflammatory response. Although data are still emerging, multiple aspects of MAIT cell biology are associated with modulation of immunity induced by the coronavirus disease 2019 mRNA and adenovirus vector vaccines. In this review, we will address how MAIT cells may play a role in immunogenicity of vaccines against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and how these cells can be harnessed as cellular adjuvants.

Systemic and Mucosal Immunogenicity of Monovalent XBB.1.5-Adapted COVID-19 mRNA Vaccines in Patients with Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Recently updated COVID-19 mRNA vaccines encode the spike protein of the omicron subvariant XBB.1.5 and are recommended for patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) on immunosuppressive treatment. Nonetheless, their immunogenicity in patients with IBD against rapidly expanding virus variants remains unknown. This prospective multicenter cohort study is the first study to investigate the immunogenicity of XBB.1.5-adapted vaccines in patients with IBD. Systemic and mucosal antibodies targeting the receptor-binding domains (RBDs) of the omicron subvariants XBB.1.5, EG.5.1, and BA.2.86, as well as their neutralization were quantified before and two to four weeks after vaccination with monovalent XBB.1.5-adapted mRNA vaccines. Vaccination increased levels of serum anti-RBD IgG targeting XBB.1.5, EG.5.1, and BA.2.86 (1.9-fold, 1.8-fold, and 2.6-fold, respectively) and enhanced corresponding neutralization responses (2.3-fold, 3.1-fold, and 3.5-fold, respectively). Following vaccination, anti-TNF-treated patients had reduced virus neutralization compared to patients on treatments with other cellular targets. 11.1% and 16.7% of patients lacked EG.5.1 and BA.2.86 neutralization, respectively; all these patients received anti-TNF treatment. At mucosal sites, vaccination induced variant-specific anti-RBD IgG but failed to induce RBD-targeting IgA. Our findings provide a basis for future vaccine recommendations while highlighting the importance of frequent booster vaccine adaptation and the need for mucosal vaccination strategies in patients with IBD.

Adenoviral Vector System: A Comprehensive Overview of Constructions, Therapeutic Applications and Host Responses

Adenoviral vectors are crucial for gene therapy and vaccine development, offering a platform for gene delivery into host cells. Since the discovery of adenoviruses, first-generation vectors with limited capacity have evolved to third-generation vectors flacking viral coding sequences, balancing safety and gene-carrying capacity. The applications of adenoviral vectors for gene therapy and anti-viral treatments have expanded through the use of in vitro ligation and homologous recombination, along with gene editing advancements such as CRISPR-Cas9. Current research aims to maintain the efficacy and safety of adenoviral vectors by addressing challenges such as pre-existing immunity against adenoviral vectors and developing new adenoviral vectors from rare adenovirus types and non-human species. In summary, adenoviral vectors have great potential in gene therapy and vaccine development. Through continuous research and technological advancements, these vectors are expected to lead to the development of safer and more effective treatments.

A causal multiomics study discriminates the early immune features of Ad5-vectored Ebola vaccine recipients

The vaccine-induced innate immune response is essential for the generation of an antibody response. To date, how Ad5-vectored vaccines are influenced by preexisting anti-Ad5 antibodies during activation of the early immune response remains unclear. Here, we investigated the specific alterations in GP1,2-specific IgG-related elements of the early immune response at the genetic, molecular, and cellular levels on days 0, 1, 3, and 7 after Ad5-EBOV vaccination. In a causal multiomics analysis, distinct early immune responses associated with GP1,2-specific IgG were observed in Ad5-EBOV recipients with a low level of preexisting anti-Ad5 antibodies. This study revealed the correlates of the Ad5-EBOV-induced IgG response and provided mechanistic evidence for overcoming preexisting Ad5 immunity during the administration of Ad5-vectored vaccines.

Comparative single-cell RNA sequencing analysis of immune response to inactivated vaccine and natural SARS-CoV-2 infection

Uncovering the immune response to an inactivated SARS-CoV-2 vaccine (In-Vac) and natural infection is crucial for comprehending COVID-19 immunology. Here we conducted an integrated analysis of single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) data from serial peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) samples derived from 12 individuals receiving In-Vac compared with those from COVID-19 patients. Our study reveals that In-Vac induces subtle immunological changes in PBMC, including cell proportions and transcriptomes, compared with profound changes for natural infection. In-Vac modestly upregulates IFN-α but downregulates NF-κB pathways, while natural infection triggers hyperactive IFN-α and NF-κB pathways. Both In-Vac and natural infection alter T/B cell receptor repertoires, but COVID-19 has more significant change in preferential VJ gene, indicating a vigorous immune response. Our study reveals distinct patterns of cellular communications, including a selective activation of IL-15RA/IL-15 receptor pathway after In-Vac boost, suggesting its potential role in enhancing In-Vac-induced immunity. Collectively, our study illuminates multifaceted immune responses to In-Vac and natural infection, providing insights for optimizing SARS-CoV-2 vaccine efficacy.

Advances of Recombinant Adenoviral Vectors in Preclinical and Clinical Applications

Adenoviruses (Ad) have the potential to induce severe infections in vulnerable patient groups. Therefore, understanding Ad biology and antiviral processes is important to comprehend the signaling cascades during an infection and to initiate appropriate diagnostic and therapeutic interventions. In addition, Ad vector-based vaccines have revealed significant potential in generating robust immune protection and recombinant Ad vectors facilitate efficient gene transfer to treat genetic diseases and are used as oncolytic viruses to treat cancer. Continuous improvements in gene delivery capacity, coupled with advancements in production methods, have enabled widespread application in cancer therapy, vaccine development, and gene therapy on a large scale. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the virus biology, and several aspects of recombinant Ad vectors, as well as the development of Ad vector, are discussed. Moreover, we focus on those Ads that were used in preclinical and clinical applications including regenerative medicine, vaccine development, genome engineering, treatment of genetic diseases, and virotherapy in tumor treatment.

Innate immune cell activation after HIV-1 vaccine administration is associated with increased antibody production

The RV144 Thai phase III clinical trial's canarypox-protein HIV vaccine regimen showed modest efficacy in reducing infection. We therefore sought to determine the effects of vaccine administration on innate cell activation and subsequent associations with vaccine-induced immune responses. RV306 was a randomized, double-blind clinical trial in HIV-uninfected Thai adults that tested delayed boosting following the RV144 regimen. PBMC collected from RV306 participants prior to and 3 days after the last boost were used to investigate innate immune cell activation. Our analysis showed an increase in CD38+ mucosal associated invariant T (MAIT) cells, CD38+ invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells, CD38+ γδ T cells, CD38+, CD69+ and HLA-DR+ NK cells 3 days after vaccine administration. An increase in CD14-CD16+ non-classical monocytes and CD14+CD16+ intermediate monocytes accompanied by a decrease in CD14+CD16- classical monocytes was also associated with vaccine administration. Inclusion of ALVAC-HIV in the boost did not further increase MAIT, iNKT, γδ T, and NK cell activation or increase the proportion of non-classical monocytes. Additionally, NK cell activation 3 days after vaccination was positively associated with antibody titers of HIV Env-specific total IgG and IgG1. Vδ1 T cell activation 3 days after vaccine administration was associated with HIV Env-specific IgG3 titers. Finally, we observed trending associations between MAIT cell activation and Env-specific IgG3 titers and between NK cell activation and TH023 pseudovirus neutralization titers. Our study identifies a potential role for innate cells, specifically NK, MAIT, and γδ T cells, in promoting antibody responses following HIV-1 vaccine administration.

In search of a pan-coronavirus vaccine: next-generation vaccine design and immune mechanisms

Members of the coronaviridae family are endemic to human populations and have caused several epidemics and pandemics in recent history. In this review, we will discuss the feasibility of and progress toward the ultimate goal of creating a pan-coronavirus vaccine that can protect against infection and disease by all members of the coronavirus family. We will detail the unmet clinical need associated with the continued transmission of SARS-CoV-2, MERS-CoV and the four seasonal coronaviruses (HCoV-OC43, NL63, HKU1 and 229E) in humans and the potential for future zoonotic coronaviruses. We will highlight how first-generation SARS-CoV-2 vaccines and natural history studies have greatly increased our understanding of effective antiviral immunity to coronaviruses and have informed next-generation vaccine design. We will then consider the ideal properties of a pan-coronavirus vaccine and propose a blueprint for the type of immunity that may offer cross-protection. Finally, we will describe a subset of the diverse technologies and novel approaches being pursued with the goal of developing broadly or universally protective vaccines for coronaviruses.

The next-generation DNA vaccine platforms and delivery systems: advances, challenges and prospects

Vaccines have proven effective in the treatment and prevention of numerous diseases. However, traditional attenuated and inactivated vaccines suffer from certain drawbacks such as complex preparation, limited efficacy, potential risks and others. These limitations restrict their widespread use, especially in the face of an increasingly diverse range of diseases. With the ongoing advancements in genetic engineering vaccines, DNA vaccines have emerged as a highly promising approach in the treatment of both genetic diseases and acquired diseases. While several DNA vaccines have demonstrated substantial success in animal models of diseases, certain challenges need to be addressed before application in human subjects. The primary obstacle lies in the absence of an optimal delivery system, which significantly hampers the immunogenicity of DNA vaccines. We conduct a comprehensive analysis of the current status and limitations of DNA vaccines by focusing on both viral and non-viral DNA delivery systems, as they play crucial roles in the exploration of novel DNA vaccines. We provide an evaluation of their strengths and weaknesses based on our critical assessment. Additionally, the review summarizes the most recent advancements and breakthroughs in pre-clinical and clinical studies, highlighting the need for further clinical trials in this rapidly evolving field.

Dynamic MAIT Cell Recovery after Severe COVID-19 Is Transient with Signs of Heterogeneous Functional Anomalies

Mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells are an abundant population of unconventional T cells in humans and play important roles in immune defense against microbial infections. Severe COVID-19 is associated with strong activation of MAIT cells and loss of these cells from circulation. In the present study, we investigated the capacity of MAIT cells to recover after severe COVID-19. In longitudinal paired analysis, MAIT cells initially rebounded numerically and phenotypically in most patients at 4 mo postrelease from the hospital. However, the rebounding MAIT cells displayed signs of persistent activation with elevated expression of CD69, CD38, and HLA-DR. Although MAIT cell function was restored in many patients, a subgroup displayed a predominantly PD-1high functionally impaired MAIT cell pool. This profile was associated with poor expression of IFN-γ and granzyme B in response to IL-12 + L-18 and low levels of polyfunctionality. Unexpectedly, although the overall T cell counts recovered, normalization of the MAIT cell pool failed at 9-mo follow-up, with a clear decline in MAIT cell numbers and a further increase in PD-1 levels. Together, these results indicate an initial transient period of inconsistent recovery of MAIT cells that is not sustained and eventually fails. Persisting MAIT cell impairment in previously hospitalized patients with COVID-19 may have consequences for antimicrobial immunity and inflammation and could potentially contribute to post-COVID-19 health problems.

MAIT cells in bacterial infectious diseases: heroes, villains, or both?

Due to the aggravation of bacterial drug resistance and the lag in the development of new antibiotics, it is crucial to develop novel therapeutic regimens for bacterial infectious diseases. Currently, immunotherapy is a promising regimen for the treatment of infectious diseases. Mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells, a subpopulation of innate-like T cells, are abundant in humans and can mount a rapid immune response to pathogens, thus becoming a potential target of immunotherapy for infectious diseases. At the site of infection, activated MAIT cells perform complex biological functions by secreting a variety of cytokines and cytotoxic substances. Many studies have shown that MAIT cells have immunoprotective effects because they can bridge innate and adaptive immune responses, leading to bacterial clearance, tissue repair, and homeostasis maintenance. MAIT cells also participate in cytokine storm generation, tissue fibrosis, and cancer progression, indicating that they play a role in immunopathology. In this article, we review recent studies of MAIT cells, discuss their dual roles in bacterial infectious diseases and provide some promising MAIT cell-targeting strategies for the treatment of bacterial infectious diseases.

Mucosal-associated invariant T cells display both pathogenic and protective roles in patients with inflammatory bowel diseases

An important subtype of the innate-like T lymphocytes is mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells expressing a semi-invariant T cell receptor α (TCR-α) chain. MAIT cells could be activated mainly by TCR engagement or cytokines. They have been found to have essential roles in various immune mediated. There have been growing preclinical and clinical findings that show an association between MAIT cells and the physiopathology of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD). Of note, published reports demonstrate contradictory findings regarding the role of MAIT cells in IBD patients. A number of reports suggests a protective effect, whereas others show a pathogenic impact. The present review article aimed to explore and discuss the findings of experimental and clinical investigations evaluating the effects of MAIT cells in IBD subjects and animal models. Findings indicate that MAIT cells could exert opposite effects in the course of IBD, including an anti-inflammatory protective effect of blood circulating MAIT cells and an effector pathogenic effect of colonic MAIT cells. Another important finding is that blood levels of MAIT cells can be considered as a potential biomarker in IBD patients.

Current Perspectives and Challenges of MAIT Cell-Directed Therapy for Tuberculosis Infection

Mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells are a distinct population of non-conventional T cells that have been preserved through evolution and possess properties of both innate and adaptive immune cells. They are activated through the recognition of antigens presented by non-polymorphic MR1 proteins or, alternately, can be stimulated by specific cytokines. These cells are multifaceted and exert robust antimicrobial activity against bacterial and viral infections, direct the immune response through the modulation of other immune cells, and exhibit a specialized tissue homeostasis and repair function. These distinct characteristics have instigated interest in MAIT cell biology for immunotherapy and vaccine development. This review describes the current understanding of MAIT cell activation, their role in infections and diseases with an emphasis on tuberculosis (TB) infection, and perspectives on the future use of MAIT cells in immune-mediated therapy.

Superior antibody immunogenicity of a viral-vectored RH5 blood-stage malaria vaccine in Tanzanian infants as compared to adults

BACKGROUND

RH5 is a leading blood-stage candidate antigen for a Plasmodium falciparum vaccine; however, its safety and immunogenicity in malaria-endemic populations are unknown.

METHODS

A phase 1b, single-center, dose-escalation, age-de-escalation, double-blind, randomized, controlled trial was conducted in Bagamoyo, Tanzania (NCT03435874). Between 12th April and 25th October 2018, 63 healthy adults (18-35 years), young children (1-6 years), and infants (6-11 months) received a priming dose of viral-vectored ChAd63 RH5 or rabies control vaccine. Sixty participants were boosted with modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) RH5 or rabies control vaccine 8 weeks later and completed 6 months of follow-up post priming. Primary outcomes were the number of solicited and unsolicited adverse events post vaccination and the number of serious adverse events over the study period. Secondary outcomes included measures of the anti-RH5 immune response.

FINDINGS

Vaccinations were well tolerated, with profiles comparable across groups. No serious adverse events were reported. Vaccination induced RH5-specific cellular and humoral responses. Higher anti-RH5 serum immunoglobulin G (IgG) responses were observed post boost in young children and infants compared to adults. Vaccine-induced antibodies showed growth inhibition activity (GIA) in vitro against P. falciparum blood-stage parasites; their highest levels were observed in infants.

CONCLUSIONS

The ChAd63-MVA RH5 vaccine shows acceptable safety and reactogenicity and encouraging immunogenicity in children and infants residing in a malaria-endemic area. The levels of functional GIA observed in RH5-vaccinated infants are the highest reported to date following human vaccination. These data support onward clinical development of RH5-based blood-stage vaccines to protect against clinical malaria in young African infants.

FUNDING

Medical Research Council, London, UK.

Type I interferons drive MAIT cell functions against bacterial pneumonia

Mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells are abundant in the lung and contribute to host defense against infections. During bacterial infections, MAIT cell activation has been proposed to require T cell receptor (TCR)-mediated recognition of antigens derived from the riboflavin synthesis pathway presented by the antigen-presenting molecule MR1. MAIT cells can also be activated by cytokines in an MR1-independent manner, yet the contribution of MR1-dependent vs. -independent signals to MAIT cell functions in vivo remains unclear. Here, we use Klebsiella pneumoniae as a model of bacterial pneumonia and demonstrate that MAIT cell activation is independent of MR1 and primarily driven by type I interferons (IFNs). During Klebsiella infection, type I IFNs stimulate activation of murine and human MAIT cells, induce a Th1/cytotoxic transcriptional program, and modulate MAIT cell location within the lungs. Consequently, adoptive transfer or boosting of pulmonary MAIT cells protect mice from Klebsiella infection, with protection being dependent on direct type I IFN signaling on MAIT cells. These findings reveal type I IFNs as new molecular targets to manipulate MAIT cell functions during bacterial infections.

Role of MAIT cells in gastrointestinal tract bacterial infections in humans: More than a gut feeling

Mucosa-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells are the largest population of unconventional T cells in humans. These antimicrobial T cells are poised with rapid effector responses following recognition of the cognate riboflavin (vitamin B2)-like metabolite antigens derived from microbial riboflavin biosynthetic pathway. Presentation of this unique class of small molecule metabolite antigens is mediated by the highly evolutionarily conserved major histocompatibility complex class I-related protein. In humans, MAIT cells are widely found along the upper and lower gastrointestinal tracts owing to their high expression of chemokine receptors and homing molecules directing them to these tissue sites. In this review, we discuss recent findings regarding the roles MAIT cells play in various gastrointestinal bacterial infections, and how their roles appear to differ depending on the etiological agents and the anatomical location. We further discuss the potential mechanisms by which MAIT cells contribute to pathogen control, orchestrate adaptive immunity, as well as their potential contribution to inflammation and tissue damage during gastrointestinal bacterial infections, and the ensuing tissue repair following resolution. Finally, we propose and discuss the use of the emerging three-dimensional organoid technology to test different hypotheses regarding the role of MAIT cells in gastrointestinal bacterial infections, inflammation, and immunity.

Mucosal-associated invariant T cells in digestive tract: Local guardians or destroyers?

Mucosa-associated invariant T cells (MAIT) are a class of innate-like T lymphocytes mainly presenting CD8+ phenotype with a semi-invariant αβ T-cell receptor, which specifically recognises MR1-presented biosynthetic derivatives of riboflavin synthesis produced by various types of microbiomes. As innate-like T lymphocytes, MAIT can be activated by a variety of cytokines, leading to immediate immune responses to infection and tumour cues. As an organ that communicates with the external environment, the digestive tract, especially the gastrointestinal tract, contains abundant microbial populations. Communication between MAIT and local microbiomes is important for the homeostasis of mucosal immunity. In addition, accumulating evidence suggests changes in the abundance and structure of the microbial community during inflammation and tumorigenesis plays a critical role in disease progress partly through their impact on MAIT development and function. Therefore, it is essential for the understanding of MAIT response and their interaction with microbiomes in the digestive tract. Here, we summarised MAIT characteristics in the digestive tract and its alteration facing inflammation and tumour, raising that targeting MAIT can be a candidate for treatment of gastrointestinal diseases.

Aging unconventionally: γδ T cells, iNKT cells, and MAIT cells in aging

Unconventional T cells include γδ T cells, invariant Natural Killer T cells (iNKT) cells and Mucosal Associated Invariant T (MAIT) cells, which are distinguished from conventional T cells by their recognition of non-peptide ligands presented by non-polymorphic antigen presenting molecules and rapid effector functions that are pre-programmed during their development. Here we review current knowledge of the effect of age on unconventional T cells, from early life to old age, in both mice and humans. We then discuss the role of unconventional T cells in age-associated diseases and infections, highlighting the similarities between members of the unconventional T cell family in the context of aging.

Tumor-associated macrophages trigger MAIT cell dysfunction at the HCC invasive margin

Mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells represent an abundant innate-like T cell subtype in the human liver. MAIT cells are assigned crucial roles in regulating immunity and inflammation, yet their role in liver cancer remains elusive. Here, we present a MAIT cell-centered profiling of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) using scRNA-seq, flow cytometry, and co-detection by indexing (CODEX) imaging of paired patient samples. These analyses highlight the heterogeneity and dysfunctionality of MAIT cells in HCC and their defective capacity to infiltrate liver tumors. Machine-learning tools were used to dissect the spatial cellular interaction network within the MAIT cell neighborhood. Co-localization in the adjacent liver and interaction between niche-occupying CSF1R+PD-L1+ tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) and MAIT cells was identified as a key regulatory element of MAIT cell dysfunction. Perturbation of this cell-cell interaction in ex vivo co-culture studies using patient samples and murine models reinvigorated MAIT cell cytotoxicity. These studies suggest that aPD-1/aPD-L1 therapies target MAIT cells in HCC patients.

The Emerging Role of MAIT Cell Responses in Viral Infections

Mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells are unconventional T cells with innate-like antimicrobial responsiveness. MAIT cells are known for MR1 (MHC class I-related protein 1)-restricted recognition of microbial riboflavin metabolites giving them the capacity to respond to a broad range of microbes. However, recent progress has shown that MAIT cells can also respond to several viral infections in humans and in mouse models, ranging from HIV-1 and hepatitis viruses to influenza virus and SARS-CoV-2, in a primarily cognate Ag-independent manner. Depending on the disease context MAIT cells can provide direct or indirect antiviral protection for the host and may help recruit other immune cells, but they may also in some circumstances amplify inflammation and aggravate immunopathology. Furthermore, chronic viral infections are associated with varying degrees of functional and numerical MAIT cell impairment, suggesting secondary consequences for host defense. In this review, we summarize recent progress and highlight outstanding questions regarding the emerging role of MAIT cells in antiviral immunity.

Upregulated CD8+ MAIT cell differentiation and KLRD1 gene expression after inactivated SARS-CoV-2 vaccination identified by single-cell sequencing

Background

The primary strategy for reducing the incidence of COVID-19 is SARS-CoV-2 vaccination. Few studies have explored T cell subset differentiation and gene expressions induced by SARS-CoV-2 vaccines. Our study aimed to analyze T cell dynamics and transcriptome gene expression after inoculation with an inactivated SARS-CoV-2 vaccine by using single-cell sequencing.

Methods

Single-cell sequencing was performed after peripheral blood mononuclear cells were extracted from three participants at four time points during the inactivated SARS-CoV-2 vaccination process. After library preparation, raw read data analysis, quality control, dimension reduction and clustering, single-cell T cell receptor (TCR) sequencing, TCR V(D)J sequencing, cell differentiation trajectory inference, differentially expressed genes, and pathway enrichment were analyzed to explore the characteristics and mechanisms of postvaccination immunodynamics.

Results

Inactivated SARS-CoV-2 vaccination promoted T cell proliferation, TCR clone amplification, and TCR diversity. The proliferation and differentiation of CD8+ mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells were significantly upregulated, as were KLRD1 gene expression and the two pathways of nuclear-transcribed mRNA catabolic process, nonsense-mediated decay, and translational initiation.

Conclusion

Upregulation of CD8+ MAIT cell differentiation and KLRD1 expression after inactivated SARS-CoV-2 vaccination was demonstrated by single-cell sequencing. We conclude that the inactivated SARS-CoV-2 vaccine elicits adaptive T cell immunity to enhance early immunity and rapid response to the targeted virus.

Transcriptomic profile of TNFhigh MAIT cells is linked to B cell response following SARS-CoV-2 vaccination

Introduction

Higher frequencies of mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells were associated with an increased adaptive response to mRNA BNT162b2 SARS-CoV-2 vaccine, however, the mechanistic insights into this relationship are unknown. In the present study, we hypothesized that the TNF response of MAIT cells supports B cell activation following SARS-CoV-2 immunization.

Methods

To investigate the effects of repeated SARS-CoV-2 vaccinations on the peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), we performed a longitudinal single cell (sc)RNA-seq and scTCR-seq analysis of SARS-CoV-2 vaccinated healthy adults with two doses of the Pfizer-BioNTech BNT162b2 mRNA vaccine. Collection of PBMCs was performed 1 day before, 3 and 17 days after prime vaccination, and 3 days and 3 months following vaccine boost. Based on scRNA/TCR-seq data related to regulatory signals induced by the vaccine, we used computational approaches for the functional pathway enrichment analysis (Reactome), dynamics of the effector cell-polarization (RNA Velocity and CellRank), and cell-cell communication (NicheNet).

Results

We identified MAIT cells as an important source of TNF across circulating lymphocytes in response to repeated SARS-CoV-2 BNT162b2 vaccination. The TNFhigh signature of MAIT cells was induced by the second administration of the vaccine. Notably, the increased TNF expression was associated with MAIT cell proliferation and efficient anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibody production. Finally, by decoding the ligand-receptor interactions and incorporating intracellular signaling, we predicted TNFhigh MAIT cell interplay with different B cell subsets. In specific, predicted TNF-mediated activation was selectively directed to conventional switched memory B cells, which are deputed to high-affinity long-term memory.

Discussion

Overall, our results indicate that SARS-CoV-2 BNT162b2 vaccination influences MAIT cell frequencies and their transcriptional effector profile with the potential to promote B cell activation. This research also provides a blueprint for the promising use of MAIT cells as cellular adjuvants in mRNA-based vaccines.

Classic costimulatory interactions in MAIT cell responses: from gene expression to immune regulation

Mucosa-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells are evolutionarily conserved, innate-like T lymphocytes with enormous immunomodulatory potentials. Due to their strategic localization, their invariant T cell receptor (iTCR) specificity for major histocompatibility complex-related protein 1 (MR1) ligands of commensal and pathogenic bacterial origin, and their sensitivity to infection-elicited cytokines, MAIT cells are best known for their antimicrobial characteristics. However, they are thought to also play important parts in the contexts of cancer, autoimmunity, vaccine-induced immunity, and tissue repair. While cognate MR1 ligands and cytokine cues govern MAIT cell maturation, polarization, and peripheral activation, other signal transduction pathways, including those mediated by costimulatory interactions, regulate MAIT cell responses. Activated MAIT cells exhibit cytolytic activities and secrete potent inflammatory cytokines of their own, thus transregulating the biological behaviors of several other cell types, including dendritic cells, macrophages, natural killer cells, conventional T cells, and B cells, with significant implications in health and disease. Therefore, an in-depth understanding of how costimulatory pathways control MAIT cell responses may introduce new targets for optimized MR1/MAIT cell-based interventions. Herein, we compare and contrast MAIT cells and mainstream T cells for their expression of classic costimulatory molecules belonging to the immunoglobulin superfamily and the tumor necrosis factor (TNF)/TNF receptor superfamily, based not only on the available literature but also on our transcriptomic analyses. We discuss how these molecules participate in MAIT cells' development and activities. Finally, we introduce several pressing questions vis-à-vis MAIT cell costimulation and offer new directions for future research in this area.

MAITs and their mates: "Innate-like" behaviors in conventional and unconventional T cells

Most CD4 and CD8 T cells are restricted by conventional major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules and mount TCR-dependent adaptive immune responses. In contrast, MAIT, iNKT, and certain γδ TCR bearing cells are characterized by their abilities to recognize antigens presented by unconventional antigen-presenting molecules and to mount cytokine-mediated TCR-independent responses in an "innate-like" manner. In addition, several more diverse T-cell subsets have been described that in a similar manner are restricted by unconventional antigen-presenting molecules but mainly depend on their TCRs for activation. Vice versa, innate-like behaviour was reported in defined subpopulations of conventional T cells, particularly in barrier sites, showing that these two features are not necessarily linked. The abilities to recognize antigens presented by unconventional antigen-presenting molecules or to mount TCR-independent responses creates unique niches for these T cells and is linked to wide range of functional capabilities. This is especially exemplified by unconventional and innate-like T cells present at barrier sites where they are involved in pathogen defense, tissue homeostasis as well as in pathologic processes.

Targeting the MR1-MAIT cell axis improves vaccine efficacy and affords protection against viral pathogens

Mucosa-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells are MR1-restricted, innate-like T lymphocytes with tremendous antibacterial and immunomodulatory functions. Additionally, MAIT cells sense and respond to viral infections in an MR1-independent fashion. However, whether they can be directly targeted in immunization strategies against viral pathogens is unclear. We addressed this question in multiple wild-type and genetically altered but clinically relevant mouse strains using several vaccine platforms against influenza viruses, poxviruses and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). We demonstrate that 5-(2-oxopropylideneamino)-6-D-ribitylaminouracil (5-OP-RU), a riboflavin-based MR1 ligand of bacterial origin, can synergize with viral vaccines to expand MAIT cells in multiple tissues, reprogram them towards a pro-inflammatory MAIT1 phenotype, license them to bolster virus-specific CD8+ T cell responses, and potentiate heterosubtypic anti-influenza protection. Repeated 5-OP-RU administration did not render MAIT cells anergic, thus allowing for its inclusion in prime-boost immunization protocols. Mechanistically, tissue MAIT cell accumulation was due to their robust proliferation, as opposed to altered migratory behavior, and required viral vaccine replication competency and Toll-like receptor 3 and type I interferon receptor signaling. The observed phenomenon was reproducible in female and male mice, and in both young and old animals. It could also be recapitulated in a human cell culture system in which peripheral blood mononuclear cells were exposed to replicating virions and 5-OP-RU. In conclusion, although viruses and virus-based vaccines are devoid of the riboflavin biosynthesis machinery that supplies MR1 ligands, targeting MR1 enhances the efficacy of vaccine-elicited antiviral immunity. We propose 5-OP-RU as a non-classic but potent and versatile vaccine adjuvant against respiratory viruses.

Divergent metabolic programmes control two populations of MAIT cells that protect the lung

Although mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells provide rapid, innate-like responses, they are not pre-set, and memory-like responses have been described for MAIT cells following infections. The importance of metabolism for controlling these responses, however, is unknown. Here, following pulmonary immunization with a Salmonella vaccine strain, mouse MAIT cells expanded as separate CD127-Klrg1+ and CD127+Klrg1- antigen-adapted populations that differed in terms of their transcriptome, function and localization in lung tissue. These populations remained altered from steady state for months as stable, separate MAIT cell lineages with enhanced effector programmes and divergent metabolism. CD127+ MAIT cells engaged in an energetic, mitochondrial metabolic programme, which was critical for their maintenance and IL-17A synthesis. This programme was supported by high fatty acid uptake and mitochondrial oxidation and relied on highly polarized mitochondria and autophagy. After vaccination, CD127+ MAIT cells protected mice against Streptococcus pneumoniae infection. In contrast, Klrg1+ MAIT cells had dormant but ready-to-respond mitochondria and depended instead on Hif1a-driven glycolysis to survive and produce IFN-γ. They responded antigen independently and participated in protection from influenza virus. These metabolic dependencies may enable tuning of memory-like MAIT cell responses for vaccination and immunotherapies.

MAIT cells activate dendritic cells to promote TFH cell differentiation and induce humoral immunity

Protective immune responses against respiratory pathogens, such as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and influenza virus, are initiated by the mucosal immune system. However, most licensed vaccines are administered parenterally and are largely ineffective at inducing mucosal immunity. The development of safe and effective mucosal vaccines has been hampered by the lack of a suitable mucosal adjuvant. In this study we explore a class of adjuvant that harnesses mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells. We show evidence that intranasal immunization of MAIT cell agonists co-administered with protein, including the spike receptor binding domain from SARS-CoV-2 virus and hemagglutinin from influenza virus, induce protective humoral immunity and immunoglobulin A production. MAIT cell adjuvant activity is mediated by CD40L-dependent activation of dendritic cells and subsequent priming of T follicular helper cells. In summary, we show that MAIT cells are promising vaccine targets that can be utilized as cellular adjuvants in mucosal vaccines.

A systems immunology study comparing innate and adaptive immune responses in adults to COVID-19 mRNA and adenovirus vectored vaccines

Identifying the molecular mechanisms that promote optimal immune responses to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccination is critical for future rational vaccine design. Here, we longitudinally profile innate and adaptive immune responses in 102 adults after the first, second, and third doses of mRNA or adenovirus-vectored COVID-19 vaccines. Using a multi-omics approach, we identify key differences in the immune responses induced by ChAdOx1-S and BNT162b2 that correlate with antigen-specific antibody and T cell responses or vaccine reactogenicity. Unexpectedly, we observe that vaccination with ChAdOx1-S, but not BNT162b2, induces an adenoviral vector-specific memory response after the first dose, which correlates with the expression of proteins with roles in thrombosis with potential implications for thrombosis with thrombocytopenia syndrome (TTS), a rare but serious adverse event linked to adenovirus-vectored vaccines. The COVID-19 Vaccine Immune Responses Study thus represents a major resource that can be used to understand the immunogenicity and reactogenicity of these COVID-19 vaccines.

A Novel Vaccine Strategy to Prevent Cytauxzoonosis in Domestic Cats

Cytauxzoonosis is caused by Cytauxzoon felis (C. felis), a tick-borne parasite that causes severe disease in domestic cats in the United States. Currently, there is no vaccine to prevent this fatal disease, as traditional vaccine development strategies have been limited by the inability to culture this parasite in vitro. Here, we used a replication-defective human adenoviral vector (AdHu5) to deliver C. felis-specific immunogenic antigens and induce a cell-mediated and humoral immune response in cats. Cats (n = 6 per group) received either the vaccine or placebo in two doses, 4 weeks apart, followed by experimental challenge with C. felis at 5 weeks post-second dose. While the vaccine induced significant cell-mediated and humoral immune responses in immunized cats, it did not ultimately prevent infection with C. felis. However, immunization significantly delayed the onset of clinical signs and reduced febrility during C. felis infection. This AdHu5 vaccine platform shows promising results as a vaccination strategy against cytauxzoonosis.

Mucosal-associated invariant T cells for cancer immunotherapy

Human mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells are characterized by their expression of an invariant TCR α chain Vα7.2-Jα33/Jα20/Jα12 paired with a restricted TCR β chain. MAIT cells recognize microbial peptides presented by the highly conserved MHC class I-like molecule MR1 and bridge the innate and acquired immune systems to mediate augmented immune responses. Upon activation, MAIT cells rapidly proliferate, produce a variety of cytokines and cytotoxic molecules, and trigger efficient antitumor immunity. Administration of a representative MAIT cell ligand 5-OP-RU effectively activates MAIT cells and enhances their antitumor capacity. In this review, we introduce MAIT cell biology and their importance in antitumor immunity, summarize the current development of peripheral blood mononuclear cell-derived and stem cell-derived MAIT cell products for cancer treatment, and discuss the potential of genetic engineering of MAIT cells for off-the-shelf cancer immunotherapy.

New insights into MAIT cells in autoimmune diseases

Mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells are resident T cells that express semi-invariant TCR chains and are restricted by monomorphic major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I-related molecules (MR1). MAIT cells can be activated by microbial-specific metabolites (MR1-dependent mode) or cytokines (MR1-independent mode). Activated MAIT cells produce chemokines, cytotoxic molecules (granzyme B and perforin), and proinflammatory cytokines (IFN-γ, TNF-α, and IL-17), to clear pathogens and target infected cells involved in the pro-inflammatory, migratory, and cytolytic properties of MAIT cells. MAIT cells produce pro-inflammatory cytokines in the target organs of autoimmune diseases and contribute to the development and progression of autoimmune diseases. This article reviews the biological characteristics, activation mechanism, dynamic migration, and dual functions of MAIT cells, and focuses on the mechanism and potential application of MAIT cells in the early diagnosis, disease activity monitoring, and therapeutic targets of autoimmune diseases, to lay a foundation for future research.

Cell entry and innate sensing shape adaptive immune responses to adenovirus-based vaccines

Nonreplicating adenovirus-based vectors have been successfully implemented as prophylactic vaccines against infectious viral diseases and induce protective cellular and humoral responses. Differences in the mechanisms of cellular entry or endosomal escape of these vectors contribute to differences in innate immune sensing between adenovirus species. Innate immune responses to adenovirus-based vaccines, such as interferon signaling, have been reported to affect the development of adaptive responses in preclinical studies, although limited data are available in humans. Understanding the mechanisms of these early events is critical for the development of vaccines that elicit effective and durable adaptive immune responses while maintaining an acceptable reactogenicity profile.

The HDAC inhibitor zabadinostat is a systemic regulator of adaptive immunity

Protein acetylation plays a key role in regulating cellular processes and is subject to aberrant control in diverse pathologies. Although histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors are approved drugs for certain cancers, it is not known whether they can be deployed in other therapeutic contexts. We have explored the clinical HDAC inhibitor, zabadinostat/CXD101, and found that it is a stand-alone regulator of the adaptive immune response. Zabadinostat treatment increased expression of MHC class I and II genes in a variety of cells, including dendritic cells (DCs) and healthy tissue. Remarkably, zabadinostat enhanced the activity of DCs, and CD4 and CD8 T lymphocytes. Using an antigenic peptide presented to the immune system by MHC class I, zabadinostat caused an increase in antigen-specific CD8 T lymphocytes. Further, mice immunised with covid19 spike protein and treated with zabadinostat exhibit enhanced covid19 neutralising antibodies and an increased level of T lymphocytes. The enhanced humoral response reflected increased activity of T follicular helper (Tfh) cells and germinal centre (GC) B cells. Our results argue strongly that zabadinostat has potential to augment diverse therapeutic agents that act through the immune system.