A next generation peripherally restricted Cavα2δ-1 ligand with inhibitory action on Cav2.2 channels and utility in neuropathic pain

The Voltage-Gated Calcium Channel (VGCC) auxiliary subunit Cavα2δ-1 (CACNA2D1) is the target/receptor of gabapentinoids which are known therapeutics in epilepsy and neuropathic pain. Following damage to the peripheral sensory nervous system, Cavα2δ-1 is upregulated in dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons in several animal models of chronic neuropathic pain. Gabapentinoids, such as gabapentin and pregabalin, engage with Cavα2δ-1 via binding an arginine residue (R241) within an RRR motif located at the N-terminus of human Cavα2δ-1. A novel, next generation gabapentinoid, engineered not to penetrate the brain, was able to generate a strong analgesic response in Chronic Constriction Injury animal model of chronic neuropathic pain and showed binding specificity for Cavα2δ-1 versus the Cavα2δ-2 subunit. This novel non-brain penetrant gabapentinoid, binds to R241 and a novel binding site on Cavα2δ-1, which is located within the VGCC_α2 domain, identified as a lysine residue within an IKAK amino acid motif (K634). The overall whole cell current amplitudes were diminished by the compound, with these inhibitory effects being diminished in R241A mutant Cavα2δ-1 subunits. The functional effects occurred at lower concentrations than those needed for inhibition by gabapentin or pregabalin, which apparently bound the Cavα2δ-1 subunit only on the R241 and not on the K634 residue. Our work sets the stage for the identification and characterisation of novel compounds with therapeutic properties in neuropathic pain and possibly in other disorders and conditions which require engagement of the Cavα2δ-1 target.

Novel Aryl Sulfonamide Derivatives as NLRP3 Inflammasome Inhibitors for the Potential Treatment of Cancer

The NLRP3 inflammasome is a critical component of innate immunity that senses diverse pathogen- and host-derived molecules. However, its aberrant activation has been associated with the pathogenesis of multiple diseases, including cancer. In this study, we designed and synthesized a series of aryl sulfonamide derivatives (ASDs) to inhibit the NLRP3 inflammasome. Among these, compounds 6c, 7n, and 10 specifically inhibited NLRP3 activation at nanomolar concentrations without affecting the activation of the NLRC4 and AIM2 inflammasomes. Furthermore, we demonstrated that these compounds reduce interleukin-1β (IL-1β) production in vivo and attenuate melanoma tumor growth. Moreover, metabolic stability in liver microsomes of 6c, 7n, and 10 was studied along with plasma exposure in mice of the most interesting compound 6c. Therefore, we generated potent NLRP3 inflammasome inhibitors, which can be considered in future medicinal chemistry and pharmacological studies aimed at developing a new therapeutic approach for NLRP3 inflammasome-driven cancer.

A Small Contribution to a Large System: The Leptin Receptor Complex

Obesity is a classified epidemic, increasing the risk of secondary diseases such as diabetes, inflammation, cardiovascular disease, and cancer. The pleiotropic hormone leptin is the proposed link for the gut-brain axis controlling nutritional status and energy expenditure. Research into leptin signaling provides great promise toward discovering therapeutics for obesity and its related diseases targeting leptin and its cognate leptin receptor (LEP-R). The molecular basis underlying the human leptin receptor complex assembly remains obscure, due to the lack of structural information regarding the biologically active complex. In this work, we investigate the proposed receptor binding sites in human leptin utilizing designed antagonist proteins combined with AlphaFold predictions. Our results show that binding site I has a more intricate role in the active signaling complex than previously described. We hypothesize that the hydrophobic patch in this region engages a third receptor forming a higher-order complex, or a new LEP-R binding site inducing allosteric rearrangement.

PML at mitochondria-associated membranes governs a trimeric complex with NLRP3 and P2X7R that modulates the tumor immune microenvironment

Uncontrolled inflammatory response arising from the tumor microenvironment (TME) significantly contributes to cancer progression, prompting an investigation and careful evaluation of counter-regulatory mechanisms. We identified a trimeric complex at the mitochondria-associated membranes (MAMs), in which the purinergic P2X7 receptor - NLRP3 inflammasome liaison is fine-tuned by the tumor suppressor PML. PML downregulation drives an exacerbated immune response due to a loss of P2X7R-NLRP3 restraint that boosts tumor growth. PML mislocalization from MAMs elicits an uncontrolled NLRP3 activation, and consequent cytokines blast fueling cancer and worsening the tumor prognosis in different human cancers. New mechanistic insights are provided for the PML-P2X7R-NLRP3 axis to govern the TME in human carcinogenesis, fostering new targeted therapeutic approaches.

Clinical grade ACE2 as a universal agent to block SARS-CoV-2 variants

The recent emergence of multiple SARS-CoV-2 variants has caused considerable concern due to both reduced vaccine efficacy and escape from neutralizing antibody therapeutics. It is, therefore, paramount to develop therapeutic strategies that inhibit all known and future SARS-CoV-2 variants. Here, we report that all SARS-CoV-2 variants analyzed, including variants of concern (VOC) Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta, and Omicron, exhibit enhanced binding affinity to clinical grade and phase 2 tested recombinant human soluble ACE2 (APN01). Importantly, soluble ACE2 neutralized infection of VeroE6 cells and human lung epithelial cells by all current VOC strains with markedly enhanced potency when compared to reference SARS-CoV-2 isolates. Effective inhibition of infections with SARS-CoV-2 variants was validated and confirmed in two independent laboratories. These data show that SARS-CoV-2 variants that have emerged around the world, including current VOC and several variants of interest, can be inhibited by soluble ACE2, providing proof of principle of a pan-SARS-CoV-2 therapeutic.

Clinical grade ACE2 as a universal agent to block SARS-CoV-2 variants

The recent emergence of multiple SARS-CoV-2 variants has caused considerable concern due to reduced vaccine efficacy and escape from neutralizing antibody therapeutics. It is therefore paramount to develop therapeutic strategies that inhibit all known and future SARS-CoV-2 variants. Here we report that all SARS-CoV-2 variants analyzed, including variants of concern (VOC) Alpha, Beta, Gamma, and Delta, exhibit enhanced binding affinity to clinical grade and phase 2 tested recombinant human soluble ACE2 (APN01). Importantly, soluble ACE2 neutralized infection of VeroE6 cells and human lung epithelial cells by multiple VOC strains with markedly enhanced potency when compared to reference SARS-CoV-2 isolates. Effective inhibition of infections with SARS-CoV-2 variants was validated and confirmed in two independent laboratories. These data show that SARS-CoV-2 variants that have emerged around the world, including current VOC and several variants of interest, can be inhibited by soluble ACE2, providing proof of principle of a pan-SARS-CoV-2 therapeutic.

A high-affinity monoclonal anti-IgE antibody for depletion of IgE and IgE-bearing cells

BACKGROUND

We have identified a monoclonal anti-human immunoglobulin E (IgE) antibody, which recognizes FcepsilonRI-bound IgE and prevents binding of IgE to FcepsilonRI. In this study, we assessed the binding kinetics and affinity of monoclonal antibody 12 (mAb12) for IgE and investigated whether mAb12 can be used for depletion of IgE and isolation of IgE-bearing cells from peripheral blood.

METHODS

Binding kinetics and affinity for IgE were studied using Biacore surface plasmon resonance technique experiments. IgE antibodies were depleted from serum using sepharose-coupled mAb12 and IgE-bearing cells were enriched from heparinized blood samples with mAb12. The extent and biological relevance of IgE depletion were studied by quantitative IgE measurements and basophil histamine release experiments. Specific binding of mAb12 to IgE-bearing cells (basophils, mast cells, IgE-secreting plasma cells) was demonstrated by FACS.

RESULTS

Monoclonal antibody 12 shows rapid association (k(a) = 5.46e5/Ms) with IgE, almost no dissociation (k(d) = 8.8e-5/s) and an affinity for IgE (K(D) = 1.61e-10 M), which is as high as that of FcepsilonRI. Immobilized mAb12 could be used to deplete IgE antibodies and isolate IgE-bearing cells from peripheral blood in a single-step procedure.

CONCLUSIONS

Monoclonal antibody 12 is a high affinity anti-human IgE antibody, which efficiently removes IgE and IgE-bearing cells from peripheral blood and may thus be used for extracorporeal depletion of IgE and IgE-bearing cells.

Mast cell-derived proteases control allergic inflammation through cleavage of IgE

BACKGROUND

Cross-linking of mast cell-bound IgE releases proinflammatory mediators, cytokines, and proteolytic enzymes and is a key event in allergic inflammation.

OBJECTIVE

We sought to study the effect of proteases released on effector cell activation on receptor-bound IgE and their possible role in the regulation of allergic inflammation.

METHODS

Using molar ratios of purified recombinant tryptase and human IgE, we studied whether tryptase can cleave IgE. Similar experiments were performed with mast cell lysates in the presence or absence of protease inhibitors. IgE cleavage products were detected in supernatants of allergen cross-linked, cultivated mast cells and in tissue fluids collected from patients' skin after IgE-mediated degranulation. The effects of protamine, an inhibitor of heparin-dependent proteases on IgE-mediated allergic in vivo skin inflammation in human subjects were studied.

RESULTS

We show that beta-tryptase, a major protease released during mast cell activation, cleaves IgE. IgE degradation products were detected in tryptase-containing tissue fluids collected from sites of allergic inflammation. The biologic significance of this mechanism is demonstrated by in vivo experiments showing that protease inhibition enhances allergic skin inflammation.

CONCLUSION

We suggest that IgE cleavage by effector cell proteases is a natural mechanism for controlling allergic inflammation.

EWI-2/CD316 is an inducible receptor of HSPA8 on human dendritic cells

The activation of dendritic cells is marked by changes both on their cell surfaces and in their functions. We define EWI-2/CD316 as an early activation marker of dendritic cells upregulated by Toll-like receptor ligands clearly before CD86 and CD83. By expression cloning, human heat shock protein A8 (HSPA8), a member of the hsp70 family, was identified as the ligand for EWI-2. Soluble EWI-2 bound both to cells expressing HSPA8 and also to immobilized HSPA8 protein. Although heat shock proteins are evolutionarily well conserved, other members of this class, including human hsp60 and mycobacterial hsp65, did not bind to EWI-2. The ligation of EWI-2 enhanced the CCL21/SLC-dependent migration of activated mature dendritic cells but attenuated their antigen-specific stimulatory capacities. Important functions of recently activated dendritic cells are thus critically modulated by the newly discovered HSPA8-EWI-2 interaction.

Designed Ankyrin Repeat Proteins as Anti-Idiotypic-Binding Molecules

According to the network theory antibodies may act as antigens thus generating anti-idiotypic antibodies that can function as regulators of immune responses. Designed ankyrin repeat proteins (DARPins) are a new class of binding proteins and may serve as an alternative to antibodies. Selections from large DARPin libraries against the variable regions of a murine monoclonal anti-human IgE antibody, termed BSW17, yielded two highly specific anti-idiotypic DARPins both with high affinity. Their binding characteristics were comparable with these of a previously selected anti-idiotypic antibody. In vitro cell assays showed that the anti-idiotypic DARPins were able to inhibit the binding of BSW17 to cell-bound IgE and prevented BSW17 functional activity. These experiments demonstrate the possibility to isolate anti-idiotypic DARPins recognizing idiotypic determinants analogous to antibodies. In the future these DARPins may be further analyzed for their potential as putative vaccine candidates.

Inhibition of human cord blood-derived mast cell responses by anti-Fc epsilon RI mAb 15/1 versus anti-IgE Omalizumab

Aggregation of the alpha-chain of the high affinity IgE receptor (Fc epsilon RI alpha) on mast cells or basophils after cross-linking of receptor-bound IgE by its antigen or an anti-IgE antibody results in cell activation and release of inflammatory mediators. Omalizumab (Xolair), Novartis Pharmaceuticals; Genentech Inc.) is a recombinant humanized anti-IgE mAb developed for the treatment of severe allergic asthma. It complexes with free serum IgE, which prevents its binding to Fc epsilon RI and thereby interrupts the allergic cascade. Administration of an inhibitory anti-Fc epsilon RI alpha mAb may represent an alternative strategy to neutralize IgE-mediated receptor activation. In the present report, for the first time, we have performed direct side of side comparison between the inhibitory anti-Fc epsilon RI alpha mAb designated 15/1 and Omalizumab for their effects on human cord blood-derived mast cells. We provide the first evidence that both 15/1 mAb and Omalizumab efficiently inhibit Fc epsilon RI-mediated human mast cell responses in vitro (degranulation, activation, release of IL-8 and IL-13, phosphorylation of Akt) and that mAb 15/1 is a non-anaphylactogenic antibody, which compared to Omalizumab, displays markedly higher inhibitory potency in the presence of high IgE levels.

Poor association between allergen-specific serum immunoglobulin E levels, skin sensitivity and basophil degranulation: a study with recombinant birch pollen allergen Bet v 1 and an immunoglobulin E detection system measuring immunoglobulin E capable of binding to Fc epsilon RI

BACKGROUND

Results from several studies indicate that the magnitude of immediate symptoms of type I allergy caused by allergen-induced cross-linking of high-affinity Fc epsilon receptors on effector cells (mast cells and basophils) is not always associated with allergen-specific IgE levels.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the association of results from intradermal skin testing, basophil histamine release and allergen-specific IgE, IgG1-4, IgA and IgM antibody levels in a clinical study performed in birch pollen-allergic patients (n = 18).

METHODS

rBet v 1-specific IgEs were measured by quantitative CAP measurements and by using purified Fc epsilon RI-derived alpha-chain to quantify IgE capable of binding to effector cells. Bet v 1-specific IgG subclasses, IgA and IgM levels were measured by ELISA, and basophil histamine release was determined in whole blood samples. Intradermal skin testing was performed with the end-point titration method.

RESULTS

Our study demonstrates on the molecular level that the concentrations of allergen-specific IgE antibodies capable of binding to Fc epsilon RI and biological sensitivities are not necessarily associated. A moderate association was found between cutaneous and basophil sensitivity.

CONCLUSION

Our results highlight the quantitative discrepancies and limitations of the present diagnostic tools in allergy, even when using a single allergenic molecule. The quantity of allergen-specific serum IgE is only one component of far more complex cellular systems (i.e. basophil-based tests, skin tests) used as indirect diagnostic tests for IgE-mediated allergic sensitivity.

A molecular model of type I allergy: identification and characterization of a nonanaphylactic anti-human IgE antibody fragment that blocks the IgE-FcepsilonRI interaction and reacts with receptor-bound IgE

BACKGROUND

The IgE-mediated activation of effector cells and antigen-presenting cells through the high-affinity receptor for IgE (FcepsilonRI) represents a key pathomechanism in type I allergy and many forms of asthma.

OBJECTIVE

We sought to establish an in vitro molecular model for the interaction of human FcepsilonRI, IgE, and the corresponding allergen and to identify monoclonal anti-human IgE antibodies with a therapeutic profile different from previously established anti-IgE antibodies.

METHODS

Human FcepsilonRI alpha chain, a human monoclonal allergen-specific IgE antibody (chimeric Bip 1), and the corresponding allergen, the major birch pollen allergen Bet v 1, were produced as recombinant proteins and analyzed by means of circular dichroism and native overlays, respectively. Using this molecular model, as well as negative stain immunoelectron microscopic analysis, and in vitro cultivated human basophils, we characterized mouse anti-human IgE antibodies.

RESULTS

We established a molecular model for the interaction of human IgE with FcepsilonRI. Using this molecular model, we identified a nonanaphylactic anti-human IgE antibody fragment (Fab12), which blocked the IgE-FcepsilonRI interaction and reacted with effector cell-bound IgE.

CONCLUSION

Fab12 represents a candidate molecule for therapy of atopy and asthma because it can be used for the depletion of circulating IgE antibodies, as well as for the depletion of IgE-bearing cells.

Inhibition of antigen-induced mediator release from IgE-sensitized cells by a monoclonal anti-Fc epsilon RI alpha-chain receptor antibody: implications for the involvement of the membrane-proximal alpha-chain region in Fc epsilon RI-mediated cell activation

The interaction between human IgE and its high affinity receptor, FcepsilonRI, is a critical event in mediating the allergic response. Aggregation of the alpha-chain of FcepsilonRI (FcepsilonRIalpha) occurs via cross-linking of receptor-bound IgE by Ag, resulting in cell activation and the release of mediators of hypersensitivity. Recently, we mapped the epitopes of two anti-FcepsilonRIalpha mAbs, 15/1 and 5H5F8. In contrast to 15/1, mAb 5H5F8 does not inhibit IgE binding to FcepsilonRIalpha. Here we demonstrate both 5H5F8 binding to FcepsilonRI(+) cells as well as a high level of IgE binding to 5H5F8-saturated cells. At the same time 5H5F8 strongly inhibits hexosaminidase release and Ca(2+) flux after Ag triggering from human IgE-sensitized RBL-2H3 cells stably transfected with human FcepsilonRIalpha. Further, 5H5F8 and its Fab inhibit sulfidoleukotriene and histamine release from primary human peripheral blood leukocytes, including cells bearing endogenous IGE: Furthermore, we confirm that 5H5F8 maps to a linear peptide sequence in close proximity to the cell membrane. Two chemically synthesized peptides containing the 5H5F8 epitope sequence PREKY were selected for detailed analysis of 5H5F8 and 5H5F8 Fab binding and were found to produce K(d) values of similar magnitude to that observed for binding to recombinant FcepsilonRIalpha. These peptides may prove useful as targets for the identification of antagonists of FcepsilonRIalpha-mediated biological activity. Moreover, our data indicate that FcepsilonRIalpha-mediated activation may involve a novel alpha-chain epitope in an early step of the cell-triggering pathway leading to cellular activation.

Allergic manifestations as the results of a conditional autoimmune response

By means of repertoire cloning we have isolated human anti-IgE antibodies as well as human anti-FcepsilonRI antibodies. Whether the naturally occurring anti-IgE autoantibodies play a pathophysiological role may be disputed, but the beneficial role of recombinant anti-IgE antibodies as a therapeutic agent has been shown. On the other hand, the natural antibodies isolated from an antibody library of a nonallergic individual against the FcepsilonRI alpha-chain are anaphylactogenic, if FcepsilonRI was not occupied. Thus, anti-FcepsilonRI autoantibodies may be part of a conditional autoimmune reaction, leading to urticaria if local IgE is consumed, e.g. after an immediate reaction. Thus, anti-FcepsilonRI antibodies may represent an amplification arm of the late reaction. The normal occurrence of anti-IgE and anti-IgE receptor autoantibodies may suggest that it might also be feasible to induce such autoantibodies by vaccination. In a monkey model using a mimotope of human IgE it was possible to induce a beneficial anti- IgE autoimmune response. The actual epitope of the IgE molecule was then also molecularly reconstructed by generating recombinant anti-idiotypic antibodies. These antibodies also induced effectively an anti-IgE response in monkeys, suggesting that not only mimotopes but also anti-idiotypic antibodies may be used to generate an autoimmune response. Both of our projects suggest that active immunization may be a new form of immunomodulation for the treatment of allergic disease.

Effects of complement inactivation and IgG depletion on skin reactivity to autologous serum in chronic idiopathic urticaria

BACKGROUND

Intradermal injection of autologous serum elicits a wheal-and-flare response in about 60% of patients with chronic idiopathic urticaria (CIU). This reactivity has been attributed to the presence of IgG autoantibodies directed against IgE or the alpha-chain of the high-affinity IgE receptor (FcepsilonRIalpha) expressed on basophils and mast cells, leading to the hypothesis that at least some forms of CIU could be sustained by an autoimmune process.

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between the presence of anti-IgE or anti-FcepsilonRI antibodies and the ability to induce wheal-and-flare responses in CIU sera selected for the capacity to give a positive skin test response.

METHODS

Fifteen patients with CIU and a positive skin test response to autologous serum were injected intradermally with native serum and with serum heated at 56 degrees C for 30 minutes and then adsorbed on Sepharose-protein G to obtain IgG depletion. Serum levels of anti-IgE and anti-FcepsilonRIalpha antibodies were measured by ELISA by using purified IgE and recombinant RIalpha-soluble double-fusion protein RIalpha-human serum albumin-RIalpha, respectively. The histamine-releasing activity of sera was tested by using ELISA with whole human blood from a healthy donor.

RESULTS

All patients had positive cutaneous responses to native serum injection. Anti-FcepsilonRIalpha antibodies were present in 14 of 15 native sera, only two of which were able to induce in vitro basophil degranulation. On the contrary, detectable amounts of anti-IgE antibodies were not found in any serum. IgG depletion by protein G resulted in complete (10/14 samples) or considerable (4/14 samples) removal of anti-FcepsilonRIalpha antibodies. The two sera endowed with functional activity lost their capacity to trigger histamine release from basophils after heating and protein G adsorption. Nonetheless, heat-decomplemented/IgG-depleted sera elicited wheal-and-flare reactions comparable with those observed with untreated sera.

CONCLUSIONS

These results strongly suggest that skin reactivity to autologous serum could be due to as yet unidentified non-Ig reactants present in the sera of patients with CIU.

Molecular basis for nonanaphylactogenicity of a monoclonal anti-IgE antibody

IgE Abs mediate allergic responses by binding to specific high affinity receptors (FcepsilonRI) on mast cells and basophils. Therefore, the IgE/FcepsilonRI interaction is a target for clinical intervention in allergic disease. An anti-IgE mAb, termed BSW17, is nonanaphylactogenic, although recognizing IgE bound to FcepsilonRI, and interferes with binding of IgE to FcepsilonRI. Thus, BSW17 represents a candidate Ab for treatment of IgE-mediated disorders. By panning BSW17 against random peptide libraries displayed on phages, we defined mimotopes that mimic the conformational epitope recognized on human IgE. Two types of mimotopes, one within the Cepsilon3 and one within the Cepsilon4 domain, were identified, indicating that this mAb may recognize either a large conformational epitope or eventually two distinct epitopes on IgE. On the basis of alignments of the two mimotopes with the human IgE sequence, we postulate that binding of BSW17 to the Cepsilon3 region predominantly blocks binding of IgE to FcepsilonRI, leading to neutralization of IgE. Moreover, binding of BSW17 to the Cepsilon4 region may explain how BSW17 recognizes FcepsilonRI-bound IgE, and binding to this region may also interfere with degranulation of IgE sensitized cells (basophils and mast cells). As a practical application of these findings, mimotope peptides coupled to a carrier protein may be used for the development of a peptide-based anti-allergy vaccine by induction of anti-IgE Abs similar to the current approach of using humanized nonanaphylactogenic anti-IgE Abs as a passive vaccine.

Mimicry of human IgE epitopes by anti-idiotypic antibodies

According to Jerne's network hypothesis, the binding site of an anti-idiotypic antibody also represents the internal image of an epitope present on a foreign, or even a self antigen. In recent years, antigen mimicry has been defined at the molecular level for some xeno-antigens. However, until now there has been no demonstration of structural mimicry between a human anti-idiotypic antibody and a self structure. To address this question, we used human IgE as the self structure and a well-defined anti-human IgE mAb (BSW17). We describe the isolation of two anti- idiotypic antibodies specific for the anti-IgE antibody BSW17 from a non-immune human Fab phage display library. Interestingly, these two anti-idiotypic antibodies mimic the same molecular surface region as a previously described IgE peptide mimotope isolated by panning on BSW17, but they cover a much larger epitope on the IgE molecule. Accordingly, immunisation of rabbits with the two anti-idiotypic antibodies induced high-affinity antibodies with the same characteristics as BSW17. Thus, our data demonstrate that it is possible to isolate anti-idiotypic antibodies derived from the human genome without the need for hyperimmunization, and confirm Jerne's hypothesis that both foreign antigens and self structures can be mimicked by our own immunoglobulins.

Interaction of human IgE with Fc epsilon RI alpha exposes hidden epitopes on IgE

BACKGROUND

Binding of human IgE via the heavy-chain constant region domain 3 (Cepsilon3) to the alpha-chain of its high affinity receptor (FcepsilonRIalpha) is a key event in mediating allergic reactions. We wanted to identify epitopes within Cepsilon3 that are stable to denaturation and to evaluate whether such structures are involved in receptor binding. The existence of stable epitopes would facilitate the generation of compounds that inhibit the IgE-FcepsilonRIalpha interaction.

METHODS

Monoclonal anti-human IgE-antibodies against recombinant bacterially synthesized Cepsilon3, which is known to be partly misfolded, were raised in mice. These antibodies were probed for binding to native, immobilized and receptor-bound IgE, respectively, providing tools for the identification of the indicated stable epitopes.

RESULTS

Two of the generated antibodies (8E7, 3G9) discriminate between IgE in solution and IgE attached to FcepsilonRIalpha, pointing towards a steric rearrangement within Cepsilon3 induced upon receptor binding. The described antibodies represent tools for studying the mechanism of the Fcepsilon-FcepsilonRIalpha interaction and may be of diagnostic value since serum IgE from various human donors was differently recognized by 8E7, which is indicative for naturally occurring IgE molecules with different steric conformation.

CONCLUSION

The presented data support the hypothesis of a conformational change within IgE Cepsilon3 upon receptor binding by showing that monoclonal antibodies raised against recombinant Cepsilon3 differently recognize soluble and receptor-bound IgE. The presence of an IgE portion in sera of human donors that is recognized by 8E7 indicates the existence of IgE molecules in different steric conformations in human blood, which may be related to pathologic parameters.

Human anti-FcepsilonRIalpha autoantibodies isolated from healthy donors cross-react with tetanus toxoid

Natural antibodies (Ab) reacting with self antigens have been shown to be present in all individuals. These autoantibodies (auto-Ab) can be either pathogenic or non-pathogenic. Auto-Ab reacting with the alpha-subunit of the high-affinity receptor for IgE (FcepsilonRIalpha) have been implicated in the pathogenesis of a subset of patients with chronic idiopathic urticaria (CIU). Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg) preparations have been used with variable clinical benefit in the treatment of these patients. Here we show that anti-FcepsilonRIalpha auto-Ab are present in a therapeutic IVIg preparation as well as in atopic and chronic urticaria patients and healthy individuals. We affinity-purified the anti-FcepsilonRIalpha Ab from an IVIg preparation using recombinant FcepsilonRIalpha. Interestingly, these anti-FcepsilonRIalpha auto-Ab showed no evidence of histamine release but strongly cross-reacted with an external antigen, tetanus toxoid (TTd) with a higher affinity for TTd than for the FcepsilonRIalpha. Since the cross-reacting Ab are non-anaphylactogenic, there is no evidence that TTd immunization may contribute to the pathogenesis of CIU. However, our results may indicate that the anti-FcepsilonRIalpha auto-Ab belong to the natural Ab and serve as the parental Ab for some anti-TTd Ab.

Mimotope and anti-idiotypic vaccines to induce an anti-IgE response

We have defined epitopes on human IgE by screening different phage display random peptide libraries with a monoclonal anti-IgE antibody termed BSW17. The selected mimotopes and epitopes within the Cepsilon3 and Cepsilon4 region of IgE induced antibodies that were nonanaphylactogenic and had biological activity similar to BSW17. The chemically synthesized and KLH-coupled IgE epitopes or mimotopes were used to induce an anti-IgE response in rhesus monkeys. The immunized rhesus monkeys were subsequently protected in a PCA test when sensitized with human IgE and triggered with the corresponding allergen. Furthermore, using the same monoclonal anti-IgE antibody, we also generated an anti-idiotypic antibody that showed sequence homology with the IgE epitope in the Cepsilon3 domain. This anti-idiotypic antibody as well as the mimotopes were then used in a mouse model to induce orally an anti-IgE immune response. For this purpose mice were fed by intragastric gavages with bacteriophages displaying the small IgE-homologous structures. Orally immunized mice produced serum anti-IgE antibodies that were inhibited by BSW17 suggesting that it may be possible to induce a systemic anti-IgE response orally.

An in vitro model for the allergen-IgE-FcARI interaction

BACKGROUND

The interaction of immune complexes consisting of allergens and allergen-specific IgE with the high-affinity Fcepsilon receptor represents the key event in the induction of symptoms in type I allergic individuals. Immediate-type symptoms result from the release of biological mediators due to allergen-induced cross-linking of FcepsilonRI receptors on mast cells and basophils, whereas FcepsilonRI-mediated presentation of allergen-IgE complexes may contribute to late-phase symptoms through enhanced T cell activation. The interaction of allergens/allergen-specific IgE/FcepsilonRI represents, therefore, an important target for therapeutic intervention strategies in type I allergy.

METHODS AND RESULTS

A molecular model of the allergen-IgE-FcepsilonRI interaction was established. It consists of recombinant purified Bet v 1, the major birch pollen allergen, a chimeric Bet v 1 specific monoclonal IgE antibody, and the baculovirus-expressed purified human alpha chain of FcepsilonRI. The chimeric Bet v 1-specific IgE antibody consists of the light chain and the heavy chain variable region of a mouse monoclonal Bet v 1 specific antibody, Bip 1, and the constant region of human IgE. The interaction of rBet v 1, chimeric Bip 1, and human alpha chain was investigated by overlay experiments. Nitrocellulose-immobilized recombinant alpha chains was incubated with chimeric Bip 1 and, for control purposes, with mouse-derived Bip 1. Bound chimeric Bip 1 was detected with 125I-labeled rBet v 1. The specific interaction of rBetv 1, chimeric Bip 1, and recombinant human alpha chain is demonstrated. We thus establish a molecular model of the allergen/IgE/alpha chain interaction. The usefulness of the described in vitro system is exemplified by the identification of a mouse monoclonal antihuman IgE antibody which blocked the IgE-alpha chain interaction.

CONCLUSIONS

The module system consisting of rBet v 1, chimeric Bip 1, and recombinant alpha chain may be used for the identification of competitors of the allergic effector reaction by means of high throughput screening of compounds or by combinatorial chemistry.

The membrane-proximal part of FcepsilonRIalpha contributes to human IgE and antibody binding--implications for a general structural motif in Fc receptors

The high affinity receptor for human IgE (FcepsilonRI) on tissue mast cells and blood basophils is responsible for immediate hypersensitivity reactions. Binding of human IgE (hIgE) to FcepsilonRI has been shown to be mediated via three independent regions in the extracellular part of the alpha-subunit of FcepsilonRI (ecFcepsilonRIalpha). By site-directed mutagenesis we investigated the contribution of amino acids within the ecFcepsilonRIalpha FG loop (residues Lys154-Leu165) to binding to hIgE and two monoclonal anti-FcepsilonRIalpha antibodies (15/1, 5H5/F8). The mutated receptors were expressed and secreted from eukaryotic cells as amino-terminal fusion to HSA. We show that the proposed loop region contributes partly to hIgE binding and that the epitope of mAb 15/1, which inhibits hIgE/FcepsilonRIalpha interaction, maps to this region whereby a single W156A mutation results in complete loss of mAb 15/1 binding. In contrast, hIgE binding is not affected by the W156A mutation indicating that different amino acid residues within the loop are recognized by the mAbs 15/1 and hIgE. MAb 5H5/F8 does not recognize a receptor mutant truncated to Ile170. By screening a random dodecapeptide library displayed on bacterial flagella the epitope for mAb 5H5/F8 was mapped to P173REKY177 whereas one of the 15/1 binding clones displayed a peptide with an amino acid sequence homologous to Leu158-lle167. Based on the epitopes identified for the inhibitory mAb 15/1 and the non-inhibitory mAb 5H5F8 and on binding data obtained with polyclonal antisera raised against two ecFcepsilonRIalpha peptides, we propose a structural element in the membrane proximal part of ecFcepsilonRIalpha which forms a 3D structure which might facilitate specific and efficient attachment of hIgE.

Antigen interaction and heat inactivation expose new epitopes on human IgE

It is well established that heat-denatured IgE is no longer capable of binding to FcepsilonRI. We have found an antibody that interacts with heat-denatured IgE. Interestingly, this antibody can also be used to detect some serum IgE, but not IgE synthesized de novo in vitro. However, native IgE can be transformed into an IgE that is recognized by this antibody, if antigen is added. Our data indicate that physiological mechanisms exist that biologically inactivate IgE which might still be mistaken for 'functional' IgE by assays based on polyclonal antibodies.

Epitope-Specific Antibody Response to IgE by Mimotope Immunization

We have previously described a mouse monoclonal anti-human IgE antibody (BSW17) capable of recognizing receptor-bound IgE without inducing mediator release from human basophils or mast cells. Moreover, immune complexes of IgE and BSW17 are not able to bind to the IgE receptor. An initial attempt to map the precise epitope recognized by this mAb by using Fcε-derived peptides of variable length was unsuccessful. However, by screening random peptide phage display libraries we isolated circular nona- and octapeptides specifically recognized by BSW17. These constrained peptides mimic at least a part of a conformational epitope and are thus called mimotopes. These mimotopes, either phage displayed or synthetically synthesized, did not react with any other anti-human IgE antibody tested, but efficiently inhibited the binding of human IgE to BSW17 only. The use of Rhodol-Green-labeled free cyclic peptide proved that these interactions were not carrier dependent. Immunization of rabbits with phage clones displaying the specific peptides on the surface induced an anti-human IgE response specific for the epitope of BSW17. Therefore, we conclude that such mimotopes or mimotope-derived peptides might be used for vaccination to induce in vivo a beneficial anti-IgE response as a novel immunotherapy.

Epitope-specific antibody response to IgE by mimotope immunization

We have previously described a mouse monoclonal anti-human IgE antibody (BSW17) capable of recognizing receptor-bound IgE without inducing mediator release from human basophils or mast cells. Moreover, immune complexes of IgE and BSW17 are not able to bind to the IgE receptor. An initial attempt to map the precise epitope recognized by this mAb by using Fc epsilon-derived peptides of variable length was unsuccessful. However, by screening random peptide phage display libraries we isolated circular nona- and octapeptides specifically recognized by BSW17. These constrained peptides mimic at least a part of a conformational epitope and are thus called mimotopes. These mimotopes, either phage displayed or synthetically synthesized, did not react with any other anti-human IgE antibody tested, but efficiently inhibited the binding of human IgE to BSW17 only. The use of Rhodol-Green-labeled free cyclic peptide proved that these interactions were not carrier dependent. Immunization of rabbits with phage clones displaying the specific peptides on the surface induced an anti-human IgE response specific for the epitope of BSW17. Therefore, we conclude that such mimotopes or mimotope-derived peptides might be used for vaccination to induce in vivo a beneficial anti-IgE response as a novel immunotherapy.

Characterization of monoclonal antibodies directed against the alpha-subunit of the human IgE high-affinity receptor

A panel of monoclonal antibodies (8H10/D11, 6F9/H8, 6F9/G9, 5F2/F8/H11, 5F2/F8/G10, 8A4/G12/F9, and 8H10/F12) was raised in mice against the recombinant 20-kDa extracellular part of the alpha-chain of the human IgE high affinity receptors (ecFc epsilon RIalpha) produced in insect cells. The antibodies secreted by hybridomas were selected for specific binding to ecFc epsilon RIalpha, by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The selected clones were further characterized in surface plasmon resonance (SPR) experiments with ecFc epsilon RIalpha covalently immobilized on the surface of a sensor chip. The generated hybridomas can be divided into three groups. Hybridoma supernatants 8A4/G12/F9 and 8H10/F12 inhibited binding of human IgE to immobilized ecFc epsilon RIalpha in SPR (Group 1). Isotyping revealed that 8A4/G12/F9 and 8H10/F12 were of the IgE/kappa type. Antibodies present in the remaining supernatants were noninhibitory and bound to ecFc epsilon RIalpha in ELISA with intensities comparable to each other. Isotype analysis of antibodies secreted by these hybridomas showed that the antibodies 6F9/H8, 6F9/G9, 5F2/F8/H11, 5F2/F8/G10, and 8H10/D11 were IgG1/kappa. The hybridoma supernatants were purified via protein A chromatography. In a SPR experiment, ecFc epsilon RIalpha, displayed by immobilized human IgE, was still recognized by 6F9/H8 and 6F9/G9 (Group 2) as expected for noninhibitory antibodies. Surprisingly, 8H10/D11, 5F2/F8/H11, and 5F2/F8/G10 (Group 3) did not bind to this complex although they do not inhibit the binding of human IgE to ecFc epsilon RIalpha. All purified monoclonal antibodies gave positive signals in Western blotting.

Can active immunization redirect an anti-IgE immune response?

We used as a template a mouse monoclonal antibody against IgE to isolate peptides from random peptide phage display libraries. Thereby, two types of peptides were isolated that corresponded to two different epitopes on the human IgE molecule. These peptides, also called mimotopes, seem to be a suitable tool in conjunction with carriers to induce an autoimmune response with a beneficial effect in humans, because the originally used template antibody is capable of neutralizing IgE, is nonanaphylactogenic, and inhibits IgE synthesis. The vaccination approach is further supported by the fact that we were capable of isolating anti-idiotypic antibodies from antibody phage display libraries against the template antibody. These anti-idiotypic antibodies were inhibited by both of the isolated IgE mimotopes. Thus, active vaccination with defined IgE mimotopes may represent a follow-up drug for the presently used anti-IgE antibodies.

Suppression of in vivo IgE and tissue IL-4 mRNA induction by SDZ 280.636, a synthetic muramyl dipeptide derivative

Modulation of IgE isotype expression on B cells is one of the numerous effects of muramyl peptides on the regulation of the immune system. A non toxic diacyl glycerol derivative of muramyl dipeptide (MDP), in which the L-alanine is replaced by L-threonine (MDP-Threo-GDP; SDZ 280.636), is currently under investigation as lead compound for the development of an anti-allergic drug. In this report, the modulatory effect of orally administered SDZ 280.636 in a murine model on polyclonally induced IgE levels is described. In this model, mice are injected i.v. with goal anti mouse IgD (GAMD) and challenged three to four weeks later with goal IgG (GIG). Both the primary and secondary immune responses lead to an increase of serum IgE levels. We demonstrate the efficacy of this muramyl dipeptide derivative in selectively inhibiting a polyclonal IgE response in GAMD-primed, GIG challenged mice without affecting the levels of other immunoglobulin classes. It is further shown that the induction of interleukin 4 (IL-4) gene transcript levels in lymphoid organs, which is observed as a consequence of boosting GAMD pretreated mice with GIG, is selectively suppressed in gut associated lymphoid tissues (GALT) and mesenteric lymph nodes but not in spleen. In contrast, interleukin 13 (IL-13) mRNA levels are not affected by SDZ 280.636. The findings that SDZ 280.636 inhibits polyclonal IgE responses and suppresses IL-4, but not IL-13 mRNA expression point towards differences in the regulatory pathways of IL-4 and IL-13 gene transcription in lymphoid organs. Thus the mechanism of action appears to involve a specific suppression of IL-4 gene transcription in cells occurring in Peyer's patches and mesenteric lymph nodes which are among the first constituents of the immune system encountered by an orally administered drug.

Effect of anti-IgE antibodies on Fc epsilonRI-bound IgE

Anti-IgE mAbs have always been used to trigger mediator release from basophils or mast cells. Now nonanaphylactogenic anti-human IgE Abs are in clinical evaluation as a therapeutic agent against atopic disease. We have found a mAb that is nonanaphylactogenic but recognizes receptor-bound IgE. Interestingly, the Ab prevents the association of IgE with its receptor if immune complexes were formed between IgE and anti-IgE mAb. This explained the phenomenon that addition of anti-IgE Ab to receptor-bound IgE resulted in a decrease of receptor-bound IgE, because IgE dissociating from the receptor was complexed, altering the thermodynamic balance of receptor-bound vs free IgE. Our data show that there are nonanaphylactogenic Abs that do not directly interfere with the receptor binding site on IgE and are capable of preventing the association of IgE with its high affinity receptor. This unique feature would render such an anti-IgE Ab a possible candidate for immunotherapy of atopy.

Effect of anti-IgE antibodies on Fc epsilonRI-bound IgE

Anti-IgE mAbs have always been used to trigger mediator release from basophils or mast cells. Now nonanaphylactogenic anti-human IgE Abs are in clinical evaluation as a therapeutic agent against atopic disease. We have found a mAb that is nonanaphylactogenic but recognizes receptor-bound IgE. Interestingly, the Ab prevents the association of IgE with its receptor if immune complexes were formed between IgE and anti-IgE mAb. This explained the phenomenon that addition of anti-IgE Ab to receptor-bound IgE resulted in a decrease of receptor-bound IgE, because IgE dissociating from the receptor was complexed, altering the thermodynamic balance of receptor-bound vs free IgE. Our data show that there are nonanaphylactogenic Abs that do not directly interfere with the receptor binding site on IgE and are capable of preventing the association of IgE with its high affinity receptor. This unique feature would render such an anti-IgE Ab a possible candidate for immunotherapy of atopy.

Oral administration of muramyl dipeptide into mice modulates cell proliferation, immunoglobulin synthesis and cytokine mRNA levels in gut associated lymphoid tissues

Muramyl peptides (MDPs) are synthetic immunostimulants capable of potentiating a multitude of immune functions following parenteral administration into a host. The parent molecule MDP was also found to exert certain activities when applied via the oral route. Thus, we have studied the effect of oral treatment of mice with MDP on the lymphoproliferative responses, immunoglobulin secretion and cytokine induction in gut-associated lymphoid tissues (GALT) employing lymphocyte transformation test, ELISA and RT-PCR, respectively. Cells derived from Peyer's patches (PP) of mice orally primed with MDP were found to have enhanced proliferative responses to different mitogens and to secrete significantly more IgG, IgM and IgA immunoglobulins than cells from unprimed mice. These effects were not observed with cells derived from mesenteric lymph nodes (MLN) or spleens of MDP-primed mice. However, oral administration of MDP resulted in the up-regulation of interleukin-6 (IL-6) mRNA in MLN and down-regulation of IL-4 and tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) mRNAs in MLN, spleens and PP. These studies suggest that selective modulations of GALT responses by orally administered MDP are achievable and imply that these agents may be useful in the therapy and prophylaxis of allergic diseases.

Induction in mice of serum IgE levels after treatment with anti-mouse IgD antibodies is preceded by differential modulation of tissue cytokine gene transcription

Injection of mice with purified goat anti-mouse IgD (GAMD) leads to an interleukin (IL)-4-dependent increase of serum IgE levels. Challenge of GAMD-primed mice with goat IgG (GIG) initiates a secondary immune response with elevated serum IgE. In this report, kinetic cytokine transcript profiles of murine lymphoid tissues in response to primary i.v. GAMD treatment, as well as GIG challenge are presented. For the first time, gene transcription patterns of the recently described cytokines IL-12 and IL-13 are shown and compared with the corresponding patterns for other cytokine genes involved in IgE regulation, i.e. IL-4, and interferon (IFN)-gamma. After GAMD injection, two groups of induction profiles were observed in spleen, mesenteric lymph nodes and Peyer's patches: while IL-4 and IL-12p35 gene transcription was strongly enhanced, IFN-gamma, IL-12p40 and IL-13 mRNA were only moderately induced. Generally, maximal mRNA induction was measured on days 3 to 4 after GAMD treatment. The data demonstrate a clear-cut difference between the IL-4 and IL-13 response on the transcriptional level although both gene products show similar biological activities. The cytokine mRNA profiles support the assumption of IL-4 playing the central role in generating an IgE response. However, they do not reflect a strict Th1 versus Th2 cytokine gene transcription pattern but rather point towards a concerted action of various, partially antagonizing cytokines with respect to the regulation of IgE synthesis. IL-12 may, possibly via stimulation of IFN-gamma synthesis, represent a counterbalancing factor in the IL-4-mediated IgE response.

Domain-specific anti-IgE antibodies interfere with IgE binding to Fc epsilon RII

Human anti-IgE autoantibodies have been identified and implicated in the regulation of IgE-mediated reactions and IgE synthesis. In order to study the potential regulatory role of anti-IgE antibodies on IgE binding to the Fc epsilon RII we used a panel of IgE-specific monoclonal antibodies that were mapped by Western blotting against a series of recombinant epsilon domain peptides. Antibodies specific for all epsilon domains were detected except those against C epsilon H1. Using a competitive inhibition cell-binding assay on Fc epsilon RII + 8866 cells, we identified two major patterns of anti-IgE activity. Antibodies specific for the C epsilon H3 domain removed IgE whereas those specific for the C epsilon H2 domain enhanced IgE binding to the Fc epsilon RII. The anti-C epsilon H2 antibodies, in contrast to the anti-C epsilon H3 antibodies, could not dissociate cell-bound IgE from the Fc epsilon RII. Using preformed immune complexes of IgE and anti-IgE antibodies, it was clear that the anti-C epsilon H2 antibodies bound more IgE to the Fc epsilon RII by addition of immune complexes to the cell surface. Our results suggest that the opposing actions of either inhibition or enhancement of IgE binding by anti-IgE antibodies are related to their epsilon domain specificity.

Genomic structure of NKG5, a human NK and T cell-specific activation gene

We reported previously the isolation of a cDNA clone, designated NKG5, encoding a secreted protein that is expressed only in natural killer and T cells and is strongly upregulated upon cell activation. In this report we have isolated the NKG5 gene from a human placental genomic library and sequenced the gene and two kilobases of 5'-flanking DNA. Comparison with the cDNA sequence reveals that the NKG5 gene consists of five exons and four introns. Intron 1 contains a DNA segment that was reported to occur as an exon in 519, a closely related cDNA clone that was isolated from a T-cell library. This result indicates that NKG5 and 519 are alternative splicing products of a single gene. The 5'-flanking region of the NKG5 gene was analyzed for homology with the promoter regions of cytokines and other activation-induced genes showing lymphocyte-specific expression. Several segments displaying sequence similarity were identified. We also identified numerous sequence elements that have strong similarity to known binding sites for transcriptional regulatory proteins including T cell-specific and activation-specific regulatory factors. These findings are consistent with the cell-specific expression and the tight regulatory control that is observed for the NKG5 gene.

Recombinant murine granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor augments neutrophil recovery and enhances resistance to infections in myelosuppressed mice

The ability of recombinant murine granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (rmGM-CSF) to protect myelosuppressed mice against lethal infections was evaluated. In mice myelosuppressed by cyclophosphamide, subcutaneously administered rmGM-CSF was a potent stimulus of granulopoiesis by increasing the number of GM-CSF-responsive precursor cells in bone marrow followed by a profound neutrophilia. Neutrophil recovery was augmented by rmGM-CSF in a dose-dependent manner at daily doses of 0.6-5.0 micrograms/mouse. In addition, rmGM-CSF increased the functional activity of circulating neutrophils at similar doses. When rmGM-CSF was administered to neutropenic mice before experimentally induced Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, or Candida albicans infections, it protected against these lethal infections, resulting in increased numbers of survivors. These data suggest that rmGM-CSF protects neutropenic mice from lethal infections, probably by augmenting neutrophil recovery after myelosuppression and activation of mature cells.

Cloning the origin of transfer region of the resistance plasmid R1

The insertion of a 7.7-kb EcoRI fragment of the resistance plasmid R1 into pBR325 yielded a plasmid which is mobilizable by pDB12, a multicopy derivative of R1drd-19 lacking most of the resistance determinants. The vector alone was not mobilizable in this system. From this observation we conclude that we have cloned the origin of transfer (oriT) of R1. After inserting a 5.3-kb PvuII-EcoRI fragment of the 7.7-kb region into pUC9 the DNA was cleaved randomly with DNaseI and BamHI linkers were attached to the ends. A subsequent BamHI digestion and electrophoretic separation of the resulting DNA molecules by their size allowed us to generate an ordered series of stepwise shortened plasmids. Plasmids with a deletion of approximately 3400 bp could no longer be mobilized. Since the next larger plasmid with 284 additional base pairs could be mobilized, we are able to confine the oriT location within this extra nucleotide stretch. The DNA sequence of this region was determined. Dominant features within the DNA region are a high AT content and five inverted repeats, which might function as recognition or substrate sites for proteins of the conjugational transfer system.