Gold nanoparticle-mediated gene delivery induces widespread changes in the expression of innate immunity genes

The unique properties of oligonucleotide (and small interfering RNA)-modified gold nanoparticle conjugates make them promising intracellular gene regulation agents. We found that gold nanoparticles stably functionalized with covalently attached oligonucleotides activate immune-related genes and pathways in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells, but not an immortalized, lineage-restricted cell line. These findings have strong implications for the application of oligonucleotide-modified gold nanoparticle conjugates in translational research and in the development of therapeutics and gene delivery systems.

Efficient entry inhibition of human and nonhuman primate immunodeficiency virus by cell surface-expressed gp41-derived peptides

Membrane-anchored C-peptides (for example, maC46) derived from human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) envelope glycoprotein gp41 effectively inhibit HIV-1 entry in cell lines and primary human CD4+ cells in vitro. Here we evaluated this gene therapy approach in animal models of AIDS. We adapted the HIV gp41-derived maC46 vector construct for use in rhesus monkeys. Simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV and SHIV) sequence-adapted maC46 peptides, and the original HIV-1-derived maC46 expressed on the surface of established cell lines blocked entry of HIV-1, SIVmac251 and SHIV89.6P. Furthermore, primary rhesus monkey CD4+ T cells expressing HIV sequence-based maC46 peptides were also protected from SIV entry. Depletion of CD8+ T cells from PBMCs enhanced the yield of maC46-transduced CD4+ T cells. Supplementation with interleukin-2 (IL-2) increased transduction efficiency, whereas IL-7 and/or IL-15 provided no additional benefit. Phenotypic analysis showed that maC46-transduced and expanded cells were predominantly central memory CD4+ T cells that expressed low levels of CCR5 and slightly elevated levels of CD62L, beta7-integrin and CXCR4. These findings show that maC46-based cell surface-expressed peptides can efficiently inhibit primate immunodeficiency virus infection, and therefore serve as the basis for evaluation of this gene therapy approach in an animal model for AIDS.

Genetic composition of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in cerebrospinal fluid and blood without treatment and during failing antiretroviral therapy

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection of the central nervous system (CNS) is a significant cause of morbidity. The requirements for HIV adaptation to the CNS for neuropathogenesis and the value of CSF virus as a surrogate for virus activity in brain parenchyma are not well established. We studied 18 HIV-infected subjects, most with advanced immunodeficiency and some neurocognitive impairment but none with evidence of opportunistic infection or malignancy of the CNS. Clonal sequences of C2-V3 env and population sequences of pol from HIV RNA in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and plasma were correlated with clinical and virologic variables. Most (14 of 18) subjects had partitioning of C2-V3 sequences according to compartment, and 9 of 13 subjects with drug resistance exhibited discordant resistance patterns between the two compartments. Regression analyses identified three to seven positions in C2-V3 that discriminated CSF from plasma HIV. The presence of compartmental differences at one or more of the identified positions in C2-V3 was highly associated with the presence of discordant resistance (P = 0.007), reflecting the autonomous replication of HIV and the independent evolution of drug resistance in the CNS. Discordance of resistance was associated with severity of neurocognitive deficits (P = 0.07), while low nadir CD4 counts were linked both to the severity of neurocognitive deficits and to discordant resistance patterns (P = 0.05 and 0.09, respectively). These observations support the study of CSF HIV as an accessible surrogate for HIV virions in the brain, confirm the high frequency of discordant resistance in subjects with advanced disease in the absence of opportunistic infection or malignancy of the CNS, and begin to identify genetic patterns in HIV env associated with adaptation to the CNS.

Macrophage tropism of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 isolates from brain and lymphoid tissues predicts neurotropism independent of coreceptor specificity

The viral determinants that underlie human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) neurotropism are unknown, due in part to limited studies on viruses isolated from brain. Previous studies suggest that brain-derived viruses are macrophage tropic (M-tropic) and principally use CCR5 for virus entry. To better understand HIV-1 neurotropism, we isolated primary viruses from autopsy brain, cerebral spinal fluid, blood, spleen, and lymph node samples from AIDS patients with dementia and HIV-1 encephalitis. Isolates were characterized to determine coreceptor usage and replication capacity in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC), monocyte-derived macrophages (MDM), and microglia. Env V1/V2 and V3 heteroduplex tracking assay and sequence analyses were performed to characterize distinct variants in viral quasispecies. Viruses isolated from brain, which consisted of variants that were distinct from those in lymphoid tissues, used CCR5 (R5), CXCR4 (X4), or both coreceptors (R5X4). Minor usage of CCR2b, CCR3, CCR8, and Apj was also observed. Primary brain and lymphoid isolates that replicated to high levels in MDM showed a similar capacity to replicate in microglia. Six of 11 R5 isolates that replicated efficiently in PBMC could not replicate in MDM or microglia due to a block in virus entry. CD4 overexpression in microglia transduced with retroviral vectors had no effect on the restricted replication of these virus strains. Furthermore, infection of transfected cells expressing different amounts of CD4 or CCR5 with M-tropic and non-M-tropic R5 isolates revealed a similar dependence on CD4 and CCR5 levels for entry, suggesting that the entry block was not due to low levels of either receptor. Studies using TAK-779 and AMD3100 showed that two highly M-tropic isolates entered microglia primarily via CXCR4. These results suggest that HIV-1 tropism for macrophages and microglia is restricted at the entry level by a mechanism independent of coreceptor specificity. These findings provide evidence that M-tropism rather than CCR5 usage predicts HIV-1 neurotropism.

RANTES production from CD4+ lymphocytes correlates with host genotype and rates of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 disease progression

Several chemokine and chemokine receptor parameters were measured in peripheral blood mononuclear cells obtained from patients before they became infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1). After HIV-1 infection, the parameters were compared with plasma HIV-1 RNA levels and with rates of CD4(+) lymphocyte decline. Patients who were heterozygous for the Delta32CCR5 allele had significantly higher levels of RANTES production from their CD4(+) lymphocytes than did patients who did not carry the Delta32CCR5 allele (P=.01). Higher RANTES production levels from ex vivo-activated CD4(+)-enriched lymphocytes, but not CD8(+) lymphocytes, correlated with lower plasma HIV-1 RNA levels 9-12 months after infection (P= .01) and with slower rates of CD4(+) lymphocyte decline (P= .002). CCR5 expression levels on ex vivo-activated CD4(+) lymphocytes did not correlate with markers of disease progression. These results further support the hypothesis that chemokine production levels are associated with HIV-1 replication in vivo.

Immunologic and virologic response to highly active antiretroviral therapy in the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate prior antiretroviral therapy experience and host characteristics as determinants of immunologic and virologic response to highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART).

METHODS

We studied 397 men from the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS) who initiated HAART between October 1995 and March 1999. CD4 cell count and HIV-1 RNA responses to HAART were measured at the first visit following HAART (short-term) and extending from the first visit to approximately 33 months after HAART (long-term). Prior antiretroviral experience was classified into three groups based on antiretroviral therapy use during the 5 years prior to HAART. Age, race and host genetic characteristics also were assessed for their effects on treatment response.

RESULTS

Better short- and long-term CD4 cell and HIV-1 RNA responses were observed in the treatment-naive users. Intermittently and consistently experienced users did not significantly differ in response. Whereas race did not independently affect response, among those initiating HAART with > 400 x 10(6) CD4 cells/l, younger age and the Delta32 CCR5 genotype were associated with a better short-term CD4 cell response. There was a suggestion that having the protective CCR5 genotype also was associated with a better long-term CD4 cell response.

CONCLUSION

Immunologic and virologic response to HAART was stronger in individuals who had no prior experience with the antiretroviral therapy agents subsequently included in their initial HAART regimen. Age, level of immune competence and immunogenetics appeared to play a role in the subsequent immune reconstitution following use of highly effective HIV therapy.

Route of simian immunodeficiency virus inoculation determines the complexity but not the identity of viral variant populations that infect rhesus macaques

A better understanding of the host and viral factors associated with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) transmission is essential to developing effective strategies to curb the global HIV epidemic. Here we used the rhesus macaque-simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) animal model of HIV infection to study the range of viral genotypes that are transmitted by different routes of inoculation and by different types of viral inocula. Analysis of transmitted variants was undertaken in outbred rhesus macaques inoculated intravenously (IV) or intravaginally (IVAG) with a genetically heterogeneous SIVmac251 stock derived from a well-characterized rhesus macaque viral isolate. In addition, we performed serial IV and IVAG passage experiments using plasma from SIV-infected macaques as the inoculum. We analyzed the V1-V2 region of the SIV envelope gene from virion-associated RNA in plasma from infected animals by the heteroduplex mobility assay (HMA) and by DNA sequence analysis. We found that a more diverse population of SIV genetic variants was present in the earliest virus-positive plasma samples from all five IV SIVmac251-inoculated monkeys and from two of five IVAG SIVmac251-inoculated monkeys. In contrast, we found a relatively homogeneous population of SIV envelope variants in three of five monkeys inoculated IVAG with SIVmac251 stock and in two monkeys infected after IVAG inoculation with plasma from an SIV-infected animal. In some IVAG-inoculated animals, the transmitted SIV variant was the most common variant in the inoculum. However, a specific viral variant in the SIVmac251 stock was not consistently transmitted by IVAG inoculation. Thus, it is likely that host factors or stochastic processes determine the specific viral variants that infect an animal after IVAG SIV exposure. In addition, our results clearly demonstrate that the route of inoculation is associated with the extent and breadth of the genetic complexity of the viral variant population in the earliest stages of systemic infection.

Down-modulation of TCR/CD3 surface complexes after HIV-1 infection is associated with differential expression of the viral regulatory genes

We have investigated the mechanism(s) involved in progressive abrogation of CD3-gamma gene expression after HIV-1 or HIV-2 infection. A comparison of intracellular virus expression with T cell receptor surface density, revealed both high and low levels of viral p24 antigen in the TCR/CD3(hi), TCR/CD3(lo), and TCR/CD3(-) cells. Furthermore, in non-productively infected cells expressing the multiply spliced, virally encoded tat, rev, and nef regulatory gene transcripts, the same progressive loss of surface TCR/CD3 complexes was observed. We treated HIV-1-infected cells with antisense (AS) phosphorothioate oligodeoxynucleotides (P-OdN) targeted to the viral regulatory genes. All of the HIV-1 sequence-specific AS-P-OdN's inhibited intracellular p24 antigen expression in a time- and dose-dependent manner; although, blocking p24 expression alone was not sufficient to modulate TCR/CD3 surface density. Only Tat-AS and Nef-AS were able to delay TCR/CD3 down-modulation on receptor-positive cells or drive receptor up-regulation on receptor-negative cells. In contrast, Rev-AS accelerated TCR/CD3 loss on receptor-positive cells. RT-PCR revealed that Tat-AS and Nef-AS reduce the level of tat, nef, and rev transcripts, while Rev-AS increases the level of tat and nef transcripts in infected cells. Thus, when intracellular conditions favor expression of tat and/or nef in the absence of rev, CD3-gamma gene transcripts and TCR/CD3 surface density are down-modulated.

Tat-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes select for SIV escape variants during resolution of primary viraemia

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) infections are characterized by early peaks of viraemia that decline as strong cellular immune responses develop. Although it has been shown that virus-specific CD8-positive cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) exert selective pressure during HIV and SIV infection, the data have been controversial. Here we show that Tat-specific CD8-positive T-lymphocyte responses select for new viral escape variants during the acute phase of infection. We sequenced the entire virus immediately after the acute phase, and found that amino-acid replacements accumulated primarily in Tat CTL epitopes. This implies that Tat-specific CTLs may be significantly involved in controlling wild-type virus replication, and suggests that responses against viral proteins that are expressed early during the viral life cycle might be attractive targets for HIV vaccine development.

A polymorphism in the regulatory region of the CC-chemokine receptor 5 gene influences perinatal transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 to African-American infants

There are natural mutations in the coding and noncoding regions of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) CC-chemokine coreceptor 5 (CCR5) and in the related CCR2 protein (the CCR2-64I mutation). Individuals homozygous for the CCR5-Delta32 allele, which prevents CCR5 expression, strongly resist HIV-1 infection. Several genetic polymorphisms have been identified within the CCR5 5' regulatory region, some of which influence the rate of disease progression in adult AIDS study cohorts. We genotyped 1,442 infants (1,235 uninfected and 207 HIV-1 infected) for five CCR5 and CCR2 polymorphisms: CCR5-59353-T/C, CCR5-59356-C/T CCR5-59402-A/G, CCR5-Delta32, and CCR2-64I. The clinical significance of each genotype was assessed by measuring whether it influenced the rate of perinatal HIV-1 transmission among 667 AZT-untreated mother-infant pairs (554 uninfected and 113 HIV-1 infected). We found that the mutant CCR5-59356-T allele is relatively common in African-Americans (20.6% allele frequency among 552 infants) and rare in Caucasians and Hispanics (3.4 and 5.6% of 174 and 458 infants, respectively; P < 0.001). There were 38 infants homozygous for CCR5-59356-T, of whom 35 were African-Americans. Among the African-American infants in the AZT-untreated group, there was a highly significant increase in HIV-1 transmission to infants with two mutant CCR5-59356-T alleles (47.6% of 21), compared to those with no or one mutant allele (13.4 to 14.1% of 187 and 71, respectively; P < 0.001). The increased relative risk was 5.9 (95% confidence interval, 2.3 to 15.3; P < 0.001). The frequency of the CCR5-59356-T mutation varies between population groups in the United States, a low frequency occurring in Caucasians and a higher frequency occurring in African-Americans. Homozygosity for CCR5-59356-T is strongly associated with an increased rate of perinatal HIV-1 transmission.

Lack of viral escape and defective in vivo activation of human immunodeficiency virus type 1-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes in rapidly progressive infection

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1)-specific immune responses over the course of rapidly progressive infection are not well defined. Detailed longitudinal analyses of neutralizing antibodies, lymphocyte proliferation, in vivo-activated and memory cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) responses, and viral sequence variation were performed on a patient who presented with acute HIV-1 infection, developed an AIDS-defining illness 13 months later, and died 45 months after presentation. Neutralizing-antibody responses remained weak throughout, and no HIV-1-specific lymphocyte proliferative responses were seen even early in the disease course. Strong in vivo-activated CTL directed against Env and Pol epitopes were present at the time of the initial drop in viremia but were quickly lost. Memory CTL against Env and Pol epitopes were detected throughout the course of infection; however, these CTL were not activated in vivo. Despite an initially narrow CTL response, new epitopes were not targeted as the disease progressed. Viral sequencing showed the emergence of variants within the two targeted CTL epitopes; however, viral variants within the immunodominant Env epitope were well recognized by CTL, and there was no evidence of viral escape from immune system detection within this epitope. These data demonstrate a narrowly directed, static CTL response in a patient with rapidly progressive disease. We also show that disease progression can occur in the presence of persistent memory CTL recognition of autologous epitopes and in the absence of detectable escape from CTL responses, consistent with an in vivo defect in activation of CTL.

Persistence of HIV-1 transcription in peripheral-blood mononuclear cells in patients receiving potent antiretroviral therapy

BACKGROUND AND METHODS

Although potent antiretroviral therapy can control infection with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1), a long-lived reservoir of infectious virus persists in CD4+ T cells. We investigated this viral reservoir by measuring the levels of cell-associated viral DNA and messenger RNA (mRNA) that are essential for HIV-1 replication. Approximately every 6 months, we obtained samples of peripheral-blood mononuclear cells from five men with long-standing HIV-1 infection who had had undetectable levels of plasma HIV-1 RNA for 20 months or more during treatment with potent antiretroviral drugs.

RESULTS

Before treatment, plasma levels of HIV-1 RNA correlated with the levels of cell-associated unintegrated HIV-1 DNA and unspliced viral mRNA. After treatment, plasma levels of HIV-1 RNA fell by more than 2.7 log to undetectable levels. The decrease in cell-associated integrated and unintegrated HIV-1 DNA and mRNA occurred in two phases. The first phase occurred during the initial 500 days of treatment and was characterized by substantial decreases in the levels of DNA and mRNA, but not to undetectable levels. The concentrations of cell-associated unintegrated viral DNA, integrated proviral DNA, and unspliced viral mRNA decreased by 1.25 to 1.46 log. The second phase occurred during the subsequent 300 days or more of treatment and was characterized by a plateau in the levels of HIV-1 DNA and unspliced mRNA. After an initial rapid decline, the ratio of unspliced to multiply spliced viral mRNA (a measure of active viral transcription) stabilized and remained greater than zero at each measurement.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite treatment with potent antiretroviral drugs and the suppression of plasma HIV-1 RNA to undetectable levels for 20 months or more, HIV-1 transcription persists in peripheral-blood mononuclear cells. Unless the quasi-steady state levels of HIV DNA and mRNA eventually disappear with longer periods of therapy, these findings suggest that HIV-1 infection cannot be eradicated with current treatments.

Frequent detection of escape from cytotoxic T-lymphocyte recognition in perinatal human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) type 1 transmission: the ariel project for the prevention of transmission of HIV from mother to infant

Host immunologic factors, including human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL), are thought to contribute to the control of HIV type 1 (HIV-1) replication and thus delay disease progression in infected individuals. Host immunologic factors are also likely to influence perinatal transmission of HIV-1 from infected mother to infant. In this study, the potential role of CTL in modulating HIV-1 transmission from mother to infant was examined in 11 HIV-1-infected mothers, 3 of whom transmitted virus to their offspring. Frequencies of HIV-1-specific human leukocyte antigen class I-restricted CTL responses and viral epitope amino acid sequence variation were determined in the mothers and their infected infants. Maternal HIV-1-specific CTL clones were derived from each of the HIV-1-infected pregnant women. Amino acid substitutions within the targeted CTL epitopes were more frequently identified in transmitting mothers than in nontransmitting mothers, and immune escape from CTL recognition was detected in all three transmitting mothers but in only one of eight nontransmitting mothers. The majority of viral sequences obtained from the HIV-1-infected infant blood samples were susceptible to maternal CTL. These findings demonstrate that epitope amino acid sequence variation and escape from CTL recognition occur more frequently in mothers that transmit HIV-1 to their infants than in those who do not. However, the transmitted virus can be a CTL susceptible form, suggesting inadequate in vivo immune control.

Functional dissection of CCR5 coreceptor function through the use of CD4-independent simian immunodeficiency virus strains

With rare exceptions, all simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) strains can use CCR5 as a coreceptor along with CD4 for viral infection. In addition, many SIV strains are capable of using CCR5 as a primary receptor to infect CD4-negative cells such as rhesus brain capillary endothelial cells. By using coupled fluorescence-activated cell sorter (FACS) and infection assays, we found that even very low levels of CCR5 expression could support CD4-independent virus infection. CD4-independent viruses represent valuable tools for finely dissecting interactions between Env and CCR5 which may otherwise be masked due to the stabilization of these contacts by Env-CD4 binding. Based on the ability of SIV Env to bind to and mediate infection of cells expressing CCR5 chimeras and mutants, we identified the N terminus of CCR5 as a critical domain for direct Env binding and for supporting CD4-independent virus infection. However, the activity of N-terminal domain CCR5 mutants could be rescued by the presence of CD4, indicating that other regions of CCR5 are important for post-binding events that lead to viral entry. Rhesus CCR5 supported CD4-independent infection and direct Env binding more efficiently than did human CCR5 due to a single amino acid difference in the N terminus. Interestingly, uncleaved, oligomeric SIV Env protein bound to both CD4 and CCR5 less efficiently than did monomeric gp120. Finally, several mutations present in chronically infected monkey populations are shown to decrease the ability of CCR5 to serve as a primary viral receptor for the SIV isolates examined.

Shorter survival in advanced human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection is more closely associated with T lymphocyte activation than with plasma virus burden or virus chemokine coreceptor usage

To define predictors of survival time in late human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) disease, long- and short-duration survivors were studied after their CD4+ T cells fell to </=50/mm3. Immune activation of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, as measured by elevated cell surface expression of CD38 antigen, was strongly associated with shorter subsequent survival (P</=.002). The naive CD45RA+CD62L+ T cell reserve was low in all subjects and did not predict survival (P=.34 for CD4+ and.08 for CD8+ cells). Higher virus burden correlated with CD8+ but not CD4+ cell activation and, after correcting for multiple comparisons, was not associated with shorter survival (P=.02). All of the patients' viruses used CCR5, CXCR4, or both, and coreceptor usage did not predict survival (P=. 27). Through mechanisms apparently unrelated to higher virus burden, immune activation is a major determinant of survival in advanced HIV-1 disease.

Chemokine coreceptor usage by diverse primary isolates of human immunodeficiency virus type 1

We tested chemokine receptor subset usage by diverse, well-characterized primary viruses isolated from peripheral blood by monitoring viral replication with CCR1, CCR2b, CCR3, CCR5, and CXCR4 U87MG.CD4 transformed cell lines and STRL33/BONZO/TYMSTR and GPR15/BOB HOS.CD4 transformed cell lines. Primary viruses were isolated from 79 men with confirmed human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection from the Chicago component of the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study at interval time points. Thirty-five additional well-characterized primary viruses representing HIV-1 group M subtypes A, B, C, D, and E and group O and three primary simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) isolates were also used for these studies. The restricted use of the CCR5 chemokine receptor for viral entry was associated with infection by a virus having a non-syncytium-inducing phenotype and correlated with a reduced rate of disease progression and a prolonged disease-free interval. Conversely, broadening chemokine receptor usage from CCR5 to both CCR5 and CXCR4 was associated with infection by a virus having a syncytium-inducing phenotype and correlated with a faster rate of CD4 T-cell decline and progression of disease. We also observed a greater tendency for infection with a virus having a syncytium-inducing phenotype in men heterozygous for the defective CCR5 Delta32 allele (25%) than in those men homozygous for the wild-type CCR5 allele (6%) (P = 0.03). The propensity for infection with a virus having a syncytium-inducing phenotype provides a partial explanation for the rapid disease progression among some men heterozygous for the defective CCR5 Delta32 allele. Furthermore, we did not identify any primary viruses that used CCR3 as an entry cofactor, despite this CC chemokine receptor being expressed on the cell surface at a level commensurate with or higher than that observed for primary peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Whereas isolates of primary viruses of SIV also used STRL33/BONZO/TYMSTR and GPR15/BOB, no primary isolates of HIV-1 used these particular chemokine receptor-like orphan molecules as entry cofactors, suggesting a limited contribution of these other chemokine receptors to viral evolution. Thus, despite the number of chemokine receptors implicated in viral entry, CCR5 and CXCR4 are likely to be the physiologically relevant chemokine receptors used as entry cofactors in vivo by diverse strains of primary viruses isolated from blood.

A chemokine receptor CCR2 allele delays HIV-1 disease progression and is associated with a CCR5 promoter mutation

Viral and host factors influence the rate of HIV-1 disease progression. For HIV-1 to fuse, a CD4+ cell must express a co-receptor that the virus can use. The chemokine receptors CCR5 and CXCR4 are used by R5 and X4 viruses, respectively. Most new infections involve transmission of R5 viruses, but variants can arise later that also use CXCR4 (R5-X4 or X4 viruses). This is associated with an increased rate of CD4+ T-cell loss and poor prognosis. The ability of host cells to support HIV-1 entry also influences progression. The absence of CCR5 in approximately 1% of the Caucasian population, due to homozygosity for a 32-nucleotide deletion in the coding region (delta32-CCR5 allele), very strongly protects against HIV-1 transmission. Heterozygosity for the delta32-CCR5 allele delays progression typically by 2 years. A recent study showed that a conservative substitution (V64I) in the coding region of CCR2 also has a significant impact on disease progression, but not on HIV-1 transmission. This was unexpected, since CCR2 is rarely used as a co-receptor in vitro and the V64I change is in a transmembrane region. Because a subsequent study did not confirm this effect on progression to disease, we analyzed CCR2-V64I using subjects in the Chicago MACS. We show that CCR2-V64I is indeed protective against disease progression and go on to show that the CCR2-V64I allele is in complete linkage disequilibrium with a point mutation in the CCR5 regulatory region.

Analysis of a biallelic polymorphism in the tumor necrosis factor alpha promoter and HIV type 1 disease progression

The relevance of a TNF-alpha promoter polymorphism, a G-to-A polymorphic sequence at position-308, was examined to test whether variant alleles of TNF-alpha affect susceptibility to infection with HIV-1 and progression to AIDS. Analysis of specimens from cohorts of HIV-1 positive homosexual men demonstrated that 3 of the 32 (9.4%) HIV-1-infected long-term nonprogressors (LTNPs) were homozygous for the uncommon TNF-2 allele compared with 3 of the 196 (1.5%) HIV-1-seronegative blood donors and uninfected homosexual men (p < 0.05). There was no difference in heterozygosity among HIV-1-seropositive or -seronegative groups, although some of the seropositive men heterozygous for the TNF2 genotype were also heterozygous for CCR5delta32. However, no significant association was found between TNF genotypes and time of survival, CD4 slopes, or viral loads when seroincident (n = 109) and seroprevalent cases (n = 442) from the Chicago MACS were analyzed. Functional analysis of lymphocytes from the seronegative group revealed no difference in endogenous or mitogen-induced TNF-alpha production, as well as susceptibility to in vitro HIV-1 infection between different TNF-genotype donors. These data suggest that TNF genotypes do not play a direct role in HIV-1 disease progression; however, they could potentially be part of a multigenic linkage that may be involved in delaying progression to AIDS.

Analysis of intercurrent human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infections in phase I and II trials of candidate AIDS vaccines. AIDS Vaccine Evaluation Group, and the Correlates of HIV Immune Protection Group

Among 2099 uninfected subjects in phase I and II trials of candidate AIDS vaccines, 23 were diagnosed with intercurrent human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection. High-risk sexual exposures accounted for 17 infections, and intravenous drug use accounted for 6. Four subjects received placebo, 13 received a complete immunization schedule (> or = 3 injections), and 6 were partially immunized (< or = 2 injections). There was no significant difference between vaccine recipients and control groups in incidence of HIV-1 infection, virus load, CD4 lymphocyte count, or V3 loop amino acid sequence. In summary, 19 vaccinated subjects acquired HIV-1 infection during phase I and II trials, indicating that immunization with the products described is < 100% effective in preventing or rapidly clearing infection. Laboratory analysis suggested that vaccine-induced immune responses did not significantly affect the genotypic or phenotypic characteristics of transmitted virus or the early clinical course of HIV-1 infection.

Immunological and virological analyses of persons infected by human immunodeficiency virus type 1 while participating in trials of recombinant gp120 subunit vaccines

We have studied 18 participants in phase I/II clinical trials of recombinant gp120 (rgp120) subunit vaccines (MN and SF-2) who became infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) during the course of the trials. Of the 18 individuals, 2 had received a placebo vaccine, 9 had been immunized with MN rgp120, and seven had been immunized with SF-2 rgp120. Thirteen of the 18 infected vaccinees had received three or four immunizations prior to becoming infected. Of these, two were placebo recipients, six had received MN rgp120, and five had received SF-2 rgp120. Only 1 of the 11 rgp120 recipients who had multiple immunizations failed to develop a strong immunoglobulin G antibody response to the immunogen. However, the antibody response to rgp120 was transient, typically having a half-life of 40 to 60 days. No significant neutralizing activity against the infecting strain was detected in any of the infected individuals at any time prior to infection. Antibody titers in subjects infected despite vaccination and in noninfected subjects were not significantly different. Envelope-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocyte responses measured after infection were infrequent and weak in the nine vaccinees who were tested. HIV-1 was isolated successfully from all 18 individuals. Sixteen of these strains had a non-syncytium-inducing (NSI) phenotype, while two had a syncytium-inducing (SI) phenotype. NSI strains used the CCR5 coreceptor to enter CD4+ cells, while an SI strain from one of the vaccinees also used CXCR4. Viruses isolated from the blood of rgp120 vaccinees were indistinguishable from viruses isolated from control individuals in terms of their inherent sensitivity to neutralization by specific monoclonal antibodies and their replication rates in vitro. Furthermore, genetic sequencing of the env genes of strains infecting the vaccinees did not reveal any features that clearly distinguished these viruses from contemporary clade B viruses circulating in the United States. Thus, despite rigorous genetic analyses, using various breakdowns of the data sets, we could find no evidence that rgp120 vaccination exerted selection pressure on the infecting HIV-1 strains. The viral burdens in the infected rgp120 vaccine recipients were also determined, and they were found to be not significantly different from those in cohorts of placebo-vaccinated and nonvaccinated individuals. In summary, we conclude that vaccination with rgp120 has had,to date, no obvious beneficial or adverse effects on the individuals we have studied.

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 genetic evolution in children with different rates of development of disease

The rate of development of disease varies considerably among human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1)-infected children. The reasons for these observed differences are not clearly understood but most probably depend on the dynamic interplay between the HIV-1 quasispecies virus population and the immune constraints imposed by the host. To study the relationship between disease progression and genetic diversity, we analyzed the evolution of viral sequences within six perinatally infected children by examining proviral sequences spanning the C2 through V5 regions of the viral envelope gene by PCR of blood samples obtained at sequential visits. PCR product DNAs from four sample time points per child were cloned, and 10 to 13 clones from each sample were sequenced. Greater genetic distances relative to the time of infection were found for children with low virion-associated RNA burdens and slow progression to disease relative to those found for children with high virion-associated RNA burdens and rapid progression to disease. The greater branch lengths observed in the phylogenetic reconstructions correlated with a higher accumulation rate of nonsynonymous base substitutions per potential nonsynonymous site, consistent with positive selection for change rather than a difference in replication kinetics. Viral sequences from children with slow progression to disease also showed a tendency to form clusters that associated with different sampling times. These progressive shifts in the viral population were not found in viral sequences from children with rapid progression to disease. Therefore, despite the HIV-1 quasispecies being a diverse, rapidly evolving, and competing population of genetic variants, different rates of genetic evolution could be found under different selective constraints. These data suggest that the evolutionary dynamics exhibited by the HIV-1 quasispecies virus populations are compatible with a Darwinian system evolving under the constraints of natural selection.

The role of a mutant CCR5 allele in HIV-1 transmission and disease progression

A 32-nucleotide deletion (delta 32) within the beta-chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5) gene has been described in subjects who remain uninfected despite extensive exposure to HIV-1. This allele was found to be common in the Caucasian population with a frequency of 0.0808, but was not found in people of African or Asian ancestry. To determine its role in HIV-1 transmission and disease progression, we analyzed the CCRS genotype of 1252 homosexual men enrolled in the Chicago component of the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS). No infected participant was found to be homozygous for the delta 32 allele, whereas 3.6% of at-risk but uninfected Caucasian participants were homozygous, showing the highly protective role of this genotype against sexual acquisition of HIV-1. No evidence was found to suggest that heterozygotes were protected against HIV-1 infection, but a limited protective role against disease progression was noted. The delta 32 allele of CCR5 is therefore an important host factor in HIV-1 transmission and pathogenesis.

Maintaining the integrity of human immunodeficiency virus sequence databases

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) sequences are accumulating in the literature at a rapid pace. For this ever-expanding resource to be maximally useful, it is critical that researchers strive to maintain a high level of quality assurance, both in experimental design and conduct and in analyses. Here we present detailed analyses of problematic sets of HIV-1 sequences in the database that include sequence anomalies suggestive of mislabeling or sample contamination problems. These data are examined in the context of currently available HIV-1 sequence information to provide an example of how to identify potentially flawed data. Indicators of potential problems with sequences are (i) sequences that are nearly identical that are supposed to be derived from unlinked individuals and that are markedly distinct from other sequences from the putative source or (ii) sequences that are nearly identical to those of laboratory strains. We provide an outline of methods that researchers can use to perform preliminary laboratory and computational analyses that could help identify problematic data and thus help ensure the integrity of sequence databases.

Adaptive evolution of human immunodeficiency virus-type 1 during the natural course of infection

The rate of progression to disease varies considerably among individuals infected with human immunodeficiency virus-type 1 (HIV-1). Analyses of semiannual blood samples obtained from six infected men showed that a rapid rate of CD4 T cell loss was associated with relative evolutionary stasis of the HIV-1 quasispecies virus population. More moderate rates of CD4 T cell loss correlated with genetic evolution within three of four subjects. Consistent with selection by the immune constraints of these subjects, amino acid changes were apparent within the appropriate epitopes of human leukocyte antigen class I-restricted cytotoxic T lymphocytes. Thus, the evolutionary dynamics exhibited by the HIV-1 quasispecies virus populations under natural selection are compatible with adaptive evolution.

Relative resistance to HIV-1 infection of CD4 lymphocytes from persons who remain uninfected despite multiple high-risk sexual exposure

Some individuals remain uninfected with human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1) despite multiple high-risk sexual exposures. We studied a cohort of 25 subjects with histories of multiple high-risk sexual exposures to HIV-1 and found that their CD8+ lymphocytes had greater anti-HIV-1 activity than did CD8+ lymphocytes from nonexposed controls. Further studies indicated that their purified CD4+ lymphocytes were less susceptible to infection with multiple primary isolates of HIV-1 than were CD4+ lymphocytes from the nonexposed controls. This relative resistance to HIV-1 infection did not extend to T-cell line-adapted strains, was restricted by the envelope glycoprotein, was not explained by the cell surface density of CD4 molecules, but was associated with the activity of the C-C chemokines RANTES, MIP-1alpha, and MIP-1beta. This relative resistance of CD4+ lymphocytes may contribute to protection from HIV-1 in multiply exposed persons.

Cellular targets of infection and route of viral dissemination after an intravaginal inoculation of simian immunodeficiency virus into rhesus macaques

We used the simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)/rhesus macaque model to study events that underlie sexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1). Four female rhesus macaques were inoculated intravaginally with SIVmac251, and then killed 2, 5, 7, and 9 d later. A technique that detected polymerase chain reaction-amplified SIV in situ showed that the first cellular targets for SIV were in the lamina propria of the cervicovaginal mucosa, immediately subjacent to the epithelium. Phenotypic and localization studies demonstrated that many of the infected cells were likely to be dendritic cells. Within 2 d of inoculation, infected cells were identified in the paracortex and subcapsular sinus of the draining internal iliac lymph nodes. Subsequently, systemic dissemination of SIV was rapid, since culturable virus was detectable in the blood by day 5. From these results, we present a model for mucosal transmission of SIV and HIV-1.

Infection of Macaca nemestrina brain with human immunodeficiency virus type 1

We previously reported that pigtailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina) became infected after intravenous inoculation with the LAI strain of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1), an isolate that replicates in both M. nemestrina lymphocytes and blood-derived monocyte/macrophages. In the current study we investigated the presence of HIV-1 and pathology in the postmortem brains of four of these macaques. Histopathological findings revealed focal lesions in white matter in the frontal and occipital lobes of one macaque, with myelin loss, nerve fibre loss, and gliosis within these lesions. Semi-quantitative, solution-based PCR revealed HIV-1 DNA in the brains of two of the other macaques. Using slide-based PCR-driven in situ hybridization, we studied these two macaques further and detected intranuclear, circular HIV-1 DNA in vascular endothelia and other non-neuronal brain cells. These findings indicate that M. nemestrina brain can be infected with HIV-1 in vivo and may provide a useful animal model for understanding early HIV-1 brain infection in humans.

Detection of CD4+ T cells harboring human immunodeficiency virus type 1 DNA by flow cytometry using simultaneous immunophenotyping and PCR-driven in situ hybridization: evidence of epitope masking of the CD4 cell surface molecule in vivo

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection of T cells and cells of the monocyte/macrophage lineage requires a specific interaction between the CD4 antigen expressed on the cell surface and the HIV-1 external envelope glycoprotein (gp120). To study the association between HIV-1 infection and modulation of cell surface expression of the CD4 molecule in vivo, we examined the CD4+ T cells harboring proviral DNA obtained from HIV-1-infected individuals who had received no antiretroviral therapy for at least 90 days. Simultaneous immunophenotyping of CD4 cell surface expression and PCR-driven in situ hybridization for HIV-1 DNA were used to resolve the CD4+ T cells into distinct populations predicted upon the presence or absence of proviral DNA. Among the HIV-1-infected study subjects, the percentage of CD4+ T cells harboring proviral DNA ranged from 17.3 to 55.5%, with a mean of 40.5%. Cell surface fluorescent staining with anti-CD4 antibody directed against a non-gp120 binding site-related epitope (L120) or a conformation-dependent epitope of the gp120 binding site (Leu 3A) demonstrated either an equivalent or a 1.5- to 3-fold-lower cell surface staining intensity for the HIV-1 DNA-positive subpopulation relative to the HIV-1 DNA-negative subpopulation, respectively. These data suggest that masking or alteration of specific epitopes on the CD4 molecule occurs after viral infection.

Changes in the viral mRNA expression pattern correlate with a rapid rate of CD4+ T-cell number decline in human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected individuals

The rate of disease progression varies considerably among human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1)-infected individuals. Several cross-sectional studies have shown an association between the stage of HIV-1 disease and the viral burden or the relative levels of viral gene expression. To study the extent of HIV-1 transcription and replication and its correlations with disease progression, we quantified serial, longitudinal samples of blood cells from 10 HIV-1-infected individuals with markedly different rates of CD4+ T-cell number decline following seroconversion. After normalization for the input nucleic acid content, multiply spliced viral mRNA and unspliced viral RNA were quantified by competitive reverse transcription-PCR using oligonucleotide primers which flank the major tat/rev/nef splice junction and span an internal region of the gag open reading frame, respectively. Coamplification of internal cRNA template controls was used to normalize for variation in the efficiency of reverse transcription and in vitro enzymatic amplification. Similarly, proviral DNA was also quantified by competitive PCR performed within the linear range of amplification. Viral RNA was detected in the blood cells of each individual from all time points regardless of the rate of CD4+ T-cell decline. Unspliced genomic viral RNA rapidly increased in the blood cells from HIV-1-infected individuals who had a precipitously declining CD4+ T-cell number. In contrast, both unspliced and multiply spliced viral mRNAs remained relatively stable in the blood cells from HIV-1-infected individuals who have had a relatively benign clinical course. These data demonstrate that the extent of viral transcription and replication correlates with the rate of CD4+ T-cell number decline and that quantifying intracellular viral RNA is of potential prognostic value.

Search for highly conserved viral and bacterial nucleic acid sequences corresponding to an etiologic agent of Kawasaki disease

The use of conventional methods to detect a possible infectious cause of Kawasaki disease (KD) has been unsuccessful. Using the polymerase chain reaction and DNA hybridization techniques, we have sought evidence that a known or new herpesvirus, parvovirus, or bacterial pathogen is related etiologically to KD. Peripheral blood DNA from acute KD patients was subjected to amplification and dot-blot hybridization to detect the presence of herpesvirus DNA, and acute KD peripheral blood and serum DNA were subjected to dot-blot hybridization for the presence of parvoviral DNA. All samples were negative for both herpesvirus and parvovirus DNA. In addition, we analyzed buffy-coat white blood cell DNA, synovial fluid DNA, and frozen autopsy and formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded myocardial tissue DNA from KD patients for the presence of highly conserved bacterial 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequences with the polymerase chain reaction, and all were negative. These results argue against a direct pathogenic role for herpesviruses, parvoviruses, and bacteria in KD. This approach to the detection of highly conserved genomic sequences among broad groups of microorganisms can be adapted for the detection of other groups of microorganisms and may yet prove useful in the search for an etiologic agent of KD.

Genetic differences between blood- and brain-derived viral sequences from human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected patients: evidence of conserved elements in the V3 region of the envelope protein of brain-derived sequences

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) sequences were generated from blood and from brain tissue obtained by stereotactic biopsy from six patients undergoing a diagnostic neurosurgical procedure. Proviral DNA was directly amplified by nested PCR, and 8 to 36 clones from each sample were sequenced. Phylogenetic analysis of intrapatient envelope V3-V5 region HIV-1 DNA sequence sets revealed that brain viral sequences were clustered relative to the blood viral sequences, suggestive of tissue-specific compartmentalization of the virus in four of the six cases. In the other two cases, the blood and brain virus sequences were intermingled in the phylogenetic analyses, suggesting trafficking of virus between the two tissues. Slide-based PCR-driven in situ hybridization of two of the patients' brain biopsy samples confirmed our interpretation of the intrapatient phylogenetic analyses. Interpatient V3 region brain-derived sequence distances were significantly less than blood-derived sequence distances. Relative to the tip of the loop, the set of brain-derived viral sequences had a tendency towards negative or neutral charge compared with the set of blood-derived viral sequences. Entropy calculations were used as a measure of the variability at each position in alignments of blood and brain viral sequences. A relatively conserved set of positions were found, with a significantly lower entropy in the brain-than in the blood-derived viral sequences. These sites constitute a brain "signature pattern," or a noncontiguous set of amino acids in the V3 region conserved in viral sequences derived from brain tissue. This brain-derived signature pattern was also well preserved among isolates previously characterized in vitro as macrophage tropic. Macrophage-monocyte tropism may be the biological constraint that results in the conservation of the viral brain signature pattern.

Establishment of a quality assurance program for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 DNA polymerase chain reaction assays by the AIDS Clinical Trials Group. ACTG PCR Working Group, and the ACTG PCR Virology Laboratories

An independent quality assurance program has been established by the Virology Committee of the AIDS Clinical Trials Group in the Division of AIDS, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, for monitoring polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) DNA that are performed by 11 laboratories participating in multicenter clinical trials in the United States. To perform HIV-1 DNA PCR for patients in AIDS Clinical Trials Group protocols, each laboratory was initially certified by correctly testing a coded certification panel consisting of eight well-defined clinical whole-blood specimens and 30 cell pellets containing 0, 2, 5, 10, 20, or 50 8E5/LAV cells per 125,000 uninfected peripheral blood mononuclear cells. PCR was performed by one of two standardized commercial assays for amplification and nonisotopic detection of HIV-1 proviral DNA. For continuing certification, each laboratory must correctly test eight coded whole-blood samples per quarter and run three or four coded cell pellets and HIV-1 DNA copy standards with every PCR assay in real time. The PCR results for the coded pellets on each run are entered into an encrypted computer file, which immediately assesses the validity of the run. To date, 10 of 11 laboratories have correctly tested all HIV-1-positive and -negative samples in the initial certification panel on their first or second attempt. Subsequently, 9 of these 11 laboratories have continued to maintain their certified status. The use of commercial HIV-1 DNA PCR assays and an external quality assurance program have ensured that results from different laboratories are comparable and that problems with sensitivity and specificity are quickly identified.

Detection of HIV-1 DNA and messenger RNA in individual cells by PCR-driven in situ hybridization and flow cytometry

Human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1) DNA and messenger RNA sequences in both cell lines and blood obtained directly from HIV-1-infected patients were amplified by polymerase chain reaction and hybridized to fluorescein-labeled probes in situ, and the individually labeled cells were analyzed by flow cytometry. After flow cytometric analysis, heterogeneous cell populations were reproducibly resolved into HIV-1-positive and -negative distributions. Fluorescence microscopy showed that the cellular morphology was preserved and intracellular localization of amplified product DNA was maintained. Retention of nonspecific probe was not observed. Analysis of proviral DNA and viral messenger RNA in cells in the blood of HIV-1-infected patients showed that the HIV-1 genome persists in a large reservoir of latently infected cells. With the use of this technique it is now possible to detect single-copy DNA or low-abundance messenger RNA rapidly and reproducibly in a minor subpopulation of cells in suspension at single-cell resolution and to sort those cells for further characterization.

Quantification of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 tat mRNA as a marker for assessing the efficacy of antiretroviral therapy

To evaluate the use of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) tat mRNA quantification as a marker for antiretroviral therapy, 10 zidovudine-naive, p24 antibody-positive subjects (Centers for Disease Control classes III and IV) were studied at the start of zidovudine treatment. HIV-1 proviral DNA content and tat mRNA levels were monitored for 20 weeks from the initiation of therapy. Levels of tat mRNA were quantified using an engineered tat cRNA internal control under conditions of linear amplification. Proviral DNA levels increased in 2 patients and decreased in 8 during 20 weeks of therapy. In each case, tat mRNA levels exhibited similar but much more pronounced changes. Results indicate that quantitative measurement of tat mRNA levels is extremely useful for monitoring antiretroviral therapy.

Infection of Macaca nemestrina by human immunodeficiency virus type-1

After observations that Macaca nemestrina were exceptionally susceptible to simian immunodeficiency virus and human immunodeficiency virus type-2 (HIV-2), studies of HIV-1 replication were initiated. Several strains of HIV-1, including a recent patient isolate, replicated in vitro in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and in CD4-positive M. nemestrina lymphocytes in a CD4-dependent fashion. Eight animals were subsequently inoculated with either cell-associated or cell-free suspensions of HIV-1. All animals had HIV-1 isolated by cocultivation, had HIV-1 DNA in their PBMCs as shown by polymerase chain reaction, and experienced sustained seroconversion to a broad spectrum of HIV-1 proteins. Macaca nemestrina is an animal model of HIV-1 infections that provides opportunities for evaluating the pathogenesis of acute HIV-1 replication and candidate vaccines and therapies.

Selective transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type-1 variants from mothers to infants

Multiple human immunodeficiency virus type-1 sequences from the V3 and V4-V5 regions of the envelope gene were analyzed from three mother-infant pairs. The infants' viral sequences were less diverse than those of their mothers. In two pairs, a proviral form infrequently found in the mother predominated in her infant. A conserved N-linked glycosylation site within the V3 region, present in each mother's sequence set, was absent in all of the infants' sequence sets. These findings demonstrate that a minor subset of maternal virus is transmitted to the infant.

Human papillomavirus type 16 and 18 gene expression in cervical neoplasias

Human papillomavirus (HPV) types 16 and 18 are strongly implicated in the generation of progressive cervical neoplasms. The viruses produce complex families of overlapping messenger RNAs that are linked to differentiation, making it necessary to analyze gene expression in the context of morphology. We have developed HPV type 16 and type 18 subgenomic clones from which 3H-labeled riboprobes specific to individual mRNA families can be generated in vitro. Using these probes for in situ hybridization, we examined serial sections of archival biopsy specimens of the spectrum of genital lesions. In low-grade squamous lesions, all viral open reading frames were expressed, and the most abundant transcription spanned the E4 and E5 open reading frames at the 3' end of the E region. L region transcription coding for the capsid proteins was restricted to terminally differentiated keratinocytes. As the grade of neoplasia increased, cellular differentiation and overall viral transcription decreased and, with few exceptions, the L2 and L1 transcripts ceased to exist. The E6-E7 transforming region was invariably derepressed. Interestingly, the patterns of HPV-16 gene expression suggested the coexistence of episomal and integrated viral DNAs. In contrast, in HPV-18 lesions, all the viral template DNA appeared to have integrated. Integration was deduced to have occurred near the boundary of the E1 and E2 open reading frames. Viral transcription patterns were similar in carcinomas in situ and in invasive carcinomas, regardless of the histologic cell types or the associated virus types, consistent with the notion that additional host gene alterations were necessary for progression. On the basis of viral gene expression in vivo and the E6 promoter regulation previously characterized in vitro, we discuss a molecular mechanism for HPV-associated carcinogenesis.

Analysis of alternatively spliced human immunodeficiency virus type-1 mRNA species, one of which encodes a novel tat-env fusion protein

A polymerase chain reaction-based analysis was used to define the structures of the mRNAs that encode human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1) regulatory and structural proteins in infected H9 cells. Twenty alternatively spliced mRNAs encoding the vif, vpr, env, nef, tat, and rev proteins were characterized. An evaluation of the coding potentials of these transcripts recognized both leaky scanning and reinitiation at downstream initiation codons as mechanisms that may operate during translation of many of the polycistronic messages. Two new splice acceptor sites, one at nt 6018 defining a new mRNA coding for the env and vpu proteins and another at nt 8671 defining a novel tat-env fusion transcript, were characterized. The latter transcript expressed a novel protein p17tev that was immunoprecipitated by both polyclonal tat antibodies and monoclonals directed towards the C-terminal region of gp41. The p17tev protein was able to transactivate transcription from the HIV-1 LTR in transient transfection assays. The use of multiple alternative splice donor and acceptor sites and the generation of novel proteins may confer evolutionary advantages on the viral mutants encoding them and influence the course of clinical disease.

Rapid detection of cytomegalovirus DNA and RNA in blood of renal transplant patients by in vitro enzymatic amplification

Cytomegalovirus infection causes significant morbidity and mortality in renal transplant patients. The only marker of CMV infection that appears to correlate with the development of symptomatic illness is viremia. However, CMV grows slowly in tissue culture, requiring 2-6 weeks of incubation for detection of characteristic cytopathic effect. The efficacy of antiviral therapy for CMV may be improved by earlier detection of viremia and institution of antiviral therapy. We performed amplification of CMV DNA and RNA from peripheral blood of renal transplant patients using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique. We consistently detected CMV DNA by PCR earlier than CMV was detected by culture. Detection of CMV RNA in one patient confirmed the presence of actively replicating virus in peripheral blood. Amplification of peripheral blood from healthy CMV-seropositive and seronegative individuals, and from seropositive renal transplant patients without evidence of active CMV disease, was consistently negative. These preliminary data indicate that PCR may provide a means for earlier diagnosis of CMV viremia. Future prospective studies should determine if early detection of CMV DNA by PCR in peripheral blood does predict viremia and symptomatic illness, and if earlier institution of antiviral therapy based on PCR results improves outcome for the CMV-infected transplanted patient.

Infectious cycle of human papillomavirus type 11 in human foreskin xenografts in nude mice

We have performed the first molecular analysis of a time course of infection by a papillomavirus. The Hershey isolate of the human papillomavirus type 11 was used to infect human foreskin tissues, which were then implanted under the renal capsules of nude mice. The xenografts were recovered every 2 weeks for 14 weeks, fixed in formalin, and embedded in paraffin. Four-micrometer serial sections were examined by light microscopy for morphological changes, by immunocytochemistry for virion antigen production, and by in situ hybridization with 3H-labeled RNA probes for viral DNA replication and expression of the major mRNA species. After a lag period, probes spanning the E4 and E5 open reading frames, which are present in all E region viral mRNAs, generated the first detectable signals at week 4. Signals of other E region probes were minimally detected at week 6. Between weeks 6 and 8, there was an abrupt change in the implant such that cellular proliferation, viral DNA replication, and E and L region mRNA transcription were robust and reached a plateau. By weeks 10 to 12, the experimental condylomata were morphologically and histologically indistinguishable from naturally occurring condylomata acuminata. These findings suggest that cellular hyperproliferation and the morphologic features of condylomata are direct results of viral genetic activities. Unlike other DNA viruses, the E region transcripts increased with cell age and cellular differentiation and persisted throughout the entire experiment. In particular, the mRNA encoding the E1iE4 and perhaps E5 proteins remained overwhelmingly abundant. In contrast, viral DNA replication, L region mRNA synthesis, and virion antigen production were restricted to the most differentiated, superficial cells.

Rapid detection of herpes-simplex-virus DNA in cerebrospinal fluid of patients with herpes simplex encephalitis

Herpes-simplex-virus (HSV) DNA in cerebrospinal fluid was amplified by use of the polymerase chain reaction and identified by hybridisation to a specific oligonucleotide probe. Specimens of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from 4 of 4 patients with herpes simplex encephalitis were positive for HSV DNA, whereas CSF specimens from 6 patients with other central-nervous-system infections were negative. This technique may expedite diagnosis of herpes simplex encephalitis.

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection a median of 18 months before a diagnostic western blot. Evidence from a cohort of homosexual men

STUDY OBJECTIVE

To study the natural history of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection, we used an in-vitro amplification technique to detect HIV-1 nucleic acid sequences in sequential aliquots of peripheral blood mononuclear cells from homosexual men enrolled in the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study.

DESIGN AND PATIENTS

Blinded, longitudinal study of 24 homosexual men who were positive for HIV-1 antibodies at a recent follow-up visit.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

Coded clinical samples were evaluated using two enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (whole virus and gp120-gp41 fragment), Western blot, a p24 antigen capture assay, virus cocultivation, and in-vitro amplification of conserved regions from the HIV-1 gag and env open-reading frames. In 20 of the 24 men an HIV-1 enzymatically amplified product was detected before HIV-1 antibody seroconversion: at 42 months before seroconversion in two cases; at 36 months in one case; at 30 months in one case; at 24 months in four cases; at 18 months in eight cases; at 12 months in one case; and at 6 months in three cases (median, 18 months). In the four other men, detection of an HIV-1 enzymatically amplified product was concurrent with confirmation of antibody seroconversion by Western blot.

CONCLUSIONS

There is a long and variable interval between virus acquisition and a diagnostic serum antibody response, perhaps due to the prolonged, persistent infection characteristic of the lentiviruses (family Retroviridae).

Enzymatic amplification of the human immunodeficiency virus in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from pediatric patients

The presence of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV) provirus was assessed in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from 27 offspring of HIV-infected mothers, 12 of these mothers, and 4 HIV-uninfected mother-infant control pairs. Enzymatic amplification of specific conserved regions of the gag and env genes was performed directly in PBMC lysates using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique. The enzymatically amplified gene products were evaluated using the oligomer hybridization detection procedure. PBMCs from infected infants (as determined by Centers for Disease Control clinical criteria) and from HIV-infected mothers manifested a characteristic HIV oligomer hybridization product. Clinically uninfected seropositive infants with declining HIV antibody titers and infants who became seronegative lacked an enzymatically amplified HIV gene product. These preliminary data indicate that PCR is a valuable diagnostic technique to detect or exclude HIV infection in young infants and children.

Differentiation-linked human papillomavirus types 6 and 11 transcription in genital condylomata revealed by in situ hybridization with message-specific RNA probes

Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) infect specific human epithelial tissues. Because viral propagation in cultured cells has not been achieved, studies of HPV genetic activities have been difficult and rely largely on analyses of patient specimens by conventional biochemical methods. HPV type 6 and type 11 infections often result in genital warts (condylomata acuminata). Structural mapping of RNAs from such warts reveals that they use alternative promoters, splice sites, and polyadenylation sites to produce complex families of overlapping mRNAs that span multiple open reading frames. Based on the mRNA structures, we have developed message-specific subgenomic clones of HPV-6 and HPV-11 in pGEM vectors. Tritium-labeled, single-stranded RNA probes were synthesized in vitro and applied to serial thin sections of patient specimens for in situ hybridization. Our results reveal the qualitative and quantitative transcription patterns of different viral messages in relationship to one another, to viral DNA replication, and to cellular differentiation. The viral "E region" is transcribed before the onset of vegetative DNA replication and continues to be expressed in increasing amounts in the maturing epithelium. Even in mature epithelia, E region messengers are far more abundant than "L region" mRNAs. The L region messages encoding capsid proteins are truly late in that they appear concomitant with or after the onset of vegetative viral DNA replication and are only present in the superficial strata of the epithelium, which contain the oldest and most differentiated keratinocytes. Abundant intron material derived from processing E region transcripts accumulates in the nuclei. Strictly nuclear signals from the L region transcripts in the midepithelium suggest that regulation of their expression is at the level of transcription elongation.

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection in homosexual men who remain seronegative for prolonged periods

Infection with the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1), as demonstrated by viral cultures, has been described in some patients before antibodies to HIV-1 can be detected, but the duration and frequency of such latent infections are uncertain. We selected prospectively a cohort of 133 seronegative homosexual men who continued to be involved in high-risk sexual activity, and we cultured 225 samples of their peripheral-blood lymphocytes, using mitogen stimulation to activate the integrated HIV-1 genome. HIV-1 was isolated in blood samples from 31 of the 133 men (23 percent), 27 of whom have remained seronegative for up to 36 months after the positive culture. The other four men seroconverted 11 to 17 months after the isolation of HIV-1. In three of them, we studied cryopreserved lymphocytes obtained earlier, using the polymerase chain reaction to amplify small amounts of viral DNA, and we demonstrated that HIV-1 provirus had been present 23, 35, and 35 months before seroconversion. We conclude that HIV-1 infection in homosexual men at high risk may occur at least 35 months before antibodies to HIV-1 can be detected. A prolonged period of latency in such infections may be more common than previously recognized; the degree of infectiousness during such periods is unknown.