The Beneficial Effects of Pine Nuts and Its Major Fatty Acid, Pinolenic Acid, on Inflammation and Metabolic Perturbations in Inflammatory Disorders

Inflammatory disorders such as atherosclerosis, diabetes and rheumatoid arthritis are regulated by cytokines and other inflammatory mediators. Current treatments for these conditions are associated with significant side effects and do not completely suppress inflammation. The benefits of diet, especially the role of specific components, are poorly understood. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) have several beneficial health effects. The majority of studies on PUFAs have been on omega-3 fatty acids. This review will focus on a less studied fatty acid, pinolenic acid (PNLA) from pine nuts, which typically constitutes up to 20% of its total fatty acids. PNLA is emerging as a dietary PUFA and a promising supplement in the prevention of inflammatory disorders or as an alternative therapy. Some studies have shown the health implications of pine nuts oil (PNO) and PNLA in weight reduction, lipid-lowering and anti-diabetic actions as well as in suppression of cell invasiveness and motility in cancer. However, few reviews have specifically focused on the biological and anti-inflammatory effects of PNLA. Furthermore, in recent bioinformatic studies on human samples, the expression of many mRNAs and microRNAs was regulated by PNLA indicating potential transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation of inflammatory and metabolic processes. The aim of this review is to summarize, highlight, and evaluate research findings on PNO and PNLA in relation to potential anti-inflammatory benefits and beneficial metabolic changes. In this context, the focus of the review is on the potential actions of PNLA on inflammation along with modulation of lipid metabolism and oxidative stress based on data from both in vitro and in vivo experiments, and human findings, including gene expression analysis.

Beneficial Impacts of Alpha-Eleostearic Acid from Wild Bitter Melon and Curcumin on Promotion of CDGSH Iron-Sulfur Domain 2: Therapeutic Roles in CNS Injuries and Diseases

Neuroinflammation and abnormal mitochondrial function are related to the cause of aging, neurodegeneration, and neurotrauma. The activation of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB), exaggerating these two pathologies, underlies the pathogenesis for the aforementioned injuries and diseases in the central nervous system (CNS). CDGSH iron-sulfur domain 2 (CISD2) belongs to the human NEET protein family with the [2Fe-2S] cluster. CISD2 has been verified as an NFκB antagonist through the association with peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-β (PPAR-β). This protective protein can be attenuated under circumstances of CNS injuries and diseases, thereby causing NFκB activation and exaggerating NFκB-provoked neuroinflammation and abnormal mitochondrial function. Consequently, CISD2-elevating plans of action provide pathways in the management of various disease categories. Various bioactive molecules derived from plants exert protective anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory effects and serve as natural antioxidants, such as conjugated fatty acids and phenolic compounds. Herein, we have summarized pharmacological characters of the two phytochemicals, namely, alpha-eleostearic acid (α-ESA), an isomer of conjugated linolenic acids derived from wild bitter melon (Momordica charantia L. var. abbreviata Ser.), and curcumin, a polyphenol derived from rhizomes of Curcuma longa L. In this review, the unique function of the CISD2-elevating effect of α-ESA and curcumin are particularly emphasized, and these natural compounds are expected to serve as a potential therapeutic target for CNS injuries and diseases.

A conjugated fatty acid present at high levels in bitter melon seed favorably affects lipid metabolism in hepatocytes by increasing NAD(+)/NADH ratio and activating PPARα, AMPK and SIRT1 signaling pathway

α-Eleostearic acid (α-ESA), or the cis-9, trans-11, trans-13 isomer of conjugated linolenic acid, is a special fatty acid present at high levels in bitter melon seed oil. The aim of this study was to examine the effect of α-ESA on hepatic lipid metabolism. Using H4IIEC3 hepatoma cell line, we showed that α-ESA significantly lowered intracellular triglyceride accumulation compared to α-linolenic acid (LN), used as a fatty acid control, in a dose- and time-dependent manner. The effects of α-ESA on enzyme activities and mRNA profiles in H4IIEC3 cells suggested that enhanced fatty acid oxidation and lowered lipogenesis were involved in α-ESA-mediated triglyceride lowering effects. In addition, α-ESA triggered AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activation without altering sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) protein levels. When cells were treated with vehicle control (VC), LN alone (LN; 100μmol/L) or in combination with α-ESA (LN+α-ESA; 75+25μmol/L) for 24h, acetylation of forkhead box protein O1 was decreased, while the NAD(+)/NADH ratio, mRNA levels of NAMPT and PTGR1 and enzyme activity of nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase were increased by LN+α-ESA treatment compared to treatment with LN alone, suggesting that α-ESA activates SIRT1 by increasing NAD(+) synthesis and NAD(P)H consumption. The antisteatosis effect of α-ESA was confirmed in mice treated with a high-sucrose diet supplemented with 1% α-ESA for 5weeks. We conclude that α-ESA favorably affects hepatic lipid metabolism by increasing cellular NAD(+)/NADH ratio and activating PPARα, AMPK and SIRT1 signaling pathways.

Modeling-Enabled Characterization of Novel NLRX1 Ligands

Nucleotide-binding domain and leucine-rich repeat containing (NLR) family are intracellular sentinels of cytosolic homeostasis that orchestrate immune and inflammatory responses in infectious and immune-mediated diseases. NLRX1 is a mitochondrial-associated NOD-like receptor involved in the modulation of immune and metabolic responses. This study utilizes molecular docking approaches to investigate the structure of NLRX1 and experimentally assesses binding to naturally occurring compounds from several natural product and lipid databases. Screening of compound libraries predicts targeting of NLRX1 by conjugated trienes, polyketides, prenol lipids, sterol lipids, and coenzyme A-containing fatty acids for activating the NLRX1 pathway. The ligands of NLRX1 were identified by docking punicic acid (PUA), eleostearic acid (ESA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) to the C-terminal fragment of the human NLRX1 (cNLRX1). Their binding and that of positive control RNA to cNLRX1 were experimentally determined by surface plasmon resonance (SPR) spectroscopy. In addition, the ligand binding sites of cNLRX1 were predicted in silico and validated experimentally. Target mutagenesis studies demonstrate that mutation of 4 critical residues ASP677, PHE680, PHE681, and GLU684 to alanine resulted in diminished affinity of PUA, ESA, and DHA to NLRX1. Consistent with the regulatory actions of NLRX1 on the NF-κB pathway, treatment of bone marrow derived macrophages (BMDM)s with PUA and DHA suppressed NF-κB activity in a NLRX1 dependent mechanism. In addition, a series of pre-clinical efficacy studies were performed using a mouse model of dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colitis. Our findings showed that the regulatory function of PUA on colitis is NLRX1 dependent. Thus, we identified novel small molecules that bind to NLRX1 and exert anti-inflammatory actions.

Pomegranate seed oil prevents bone loss in a mice model of osteoporosis, through osteoblastic stimulation, osteoclastic inhibition and decreased inflammatory status

In the current context of longer life expectancy, the prevalence of osteoporosis is increasingly important. This is why development of new strategies of prevention is highly suitable. Pomegranate seed oil (PSO) and its major component, punicic acid (a conjugated linolenic acid), have potent anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative properties both in vitro and in vivo, two processes strongly involved in osteoporosis establishment. In this study, we demonstrated that PSO consumption (5% of the diet) improved significantly bone mineral density (240.24±11.85 vs. 203.04±34.19 mg/cm(3)) and prevented trabecular microarchitecture impairment in ovariectomized (OVX) mice C57BL/6J, compared to OVX control animals. Those findings are associated with transcriptional changes in bone tissue, suggesting involvement of both osteoclastogenesis inhibition and osteoblastogenesis improvement. In addition, thanks to an ex vivo experiment, we provided evidence that serum from mice fed PSO (5% by gavage) had the ability to significantly down-regulate the expression of specific osteoclast differentiation markers and RANK-RANKL downstream signaling targets in osteoclast-like cells (RAW264.7) (RANK: negative 0.49-fold vs. control conditions). Moreover, in osteoblast-like cells (MC3T3-E1), it elicited significant increase in alkaline phosphatase activity (+159% at day 7), matrix mineralization (+271% on day 21) and transcriptional levels of major osteoblast lineage markers involving the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathways. Our data also reveal that PSO inhibited pro-inflammatory factors expression while stimulating anti-inflammatory ones. These results demonstrate that PSO is highly relevant regarding osteoporosis. Indeed, it offers promising alternatives in the design of new strategies in nutritional management of age-related bone complications.

Lack of chemopreventive effects of α-eleostearic acid on 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA) and 1,2-dimethylhydrazine (DMH)-induced mammary and colon carcinogenesis in female Sprague–Dawley rats

alpha-Eleostearic acid is one of the conjugated linolenic acids from tung oil, which is obtained from the seeds of Aleurites fordii. The effects of dietary alpha-eleostearic acid (18:3, n-5) on the post-initiation period of 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA) and 1,2-dimethylhydrazine (DMH)-induced mammary and colon carcinogenesis were examined using female Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats. For initiation, rats were given subcutaneous injections of 40mg/kg body weight (5 times) and 20mg/kg body weight (3 times) of DMH during the age of 6-8 weeks and a single intragastric administration of 50mg/kg body weight of DMBA at 9 weeks. Then, the animals were treated with 0%, 0.01%, 0.1% or 1.0% alpha-eleostearic acid for 34 weeks. Control rats received the basal diet alone or 1.0% alpha-eleostearic acid without prior initiation treatment. All surviving animals were killed at week 37 of the experiment. There were no statistically significant alterations in any of the parameters for either mammary or colon tumors. These results thus indicate that alpha-eleostearic acid does not exert clear modification effects on DMBA and DMH-induced mammary and colon carcinogenesis, at least under the present experimental conditions.

Bitter gourd seed fatty acid rich in 9c,11t,13t-conjugated linolenic acid induces apoptosis and up-regulates the GADD45, p53 and PPARgamma in human colon cancer Caco-2 cells

Bitter gourd (Momordica charantia) seed oil (BGO) is a unique oil which contains 9cis, 11trans, 13trans-conjugated linolenic acid (9c,11t,13t-CLN) at a high level of more than 60%. In this study, we investigated the anti-proliferative and apoptosis-inducing effects of free fatty acids prepared from BGO (BGO-FFA) using colon cancer Caco-2 cells. BGO-FFA and purified 9c,11t,13t-CLN remarkably reduced the cell viability of Caco-2. In Caco-2 cells treated with BGO-FFA, DNA fragmentation of apoptosis indicators was observed in a dose-dependent manner. The expression level of apoptosis suppressor Bcl-2 protein was also decreased by BGO-FFA treatment. The GADD45 and p53, which play an important role in apoptosis-inducing pathways, were remarkably up-regulated by BGO-FFA treatment in Caco-2 cells. Up-regulation of PPARgamma mRNA and protein were also observed during apoptosis induced by BGO-FFA. These results suggest that BGO-FFA rich in 9c,11t,13t-CLN may induce apoptosis in Caco-2 cells through up-regulation of GADD45, p53 and PPARgamma.

[An experimental study on the effects of postburn dietary supplementation of enhanced nutrients]

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the effects of postburn dietary supplementation of arginine (Arg), omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (omega-3PUFA) and glutamine (Glu) on the metabolism, immunology and wound healing in scalded rats.

METHODS

Thirty Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats inflicted with 30% total body surface area deep partial thickness scald on the back after the gastrostomy catheter was placed were employed as the model. The rats were randomly divided into A and B groups, and all of them received continuous isonitrogenous (25% protein, 12% fat, 63% carbohydrate), isocaloric (175 kcal/kg/day), and isovolemic intragastric tube feedings. The contents of Arg, omega-3PUFA, Glu in the dietary of B group were enriched. The parameters were measured on the 10th day after injury, including the response of spleen cells to ConA, the plasma levels of PGE(2), IL-2, albumin, transferrin, glucagons, cortisol in blood, the urinary content of vanillylmandelic acid (VAM) in 24-hour urine, the content of hydroxyproline, the ratio of type I to type III collagen in burn wounds, and the nitrogen content in the liver and in the jejunal mucosa, as well as the weight changes, skin delayed hypersensitivity test, and wound healing time.

RESULTS

It was revealed that the serum level of albumin, the nitrogen content in the liver and in the jejunal mucosa were obviously higher in B than those in A group. At the same time, there was no statistical difference in the plasma levels of cortisol and glucagons and urinary content of VAM between the two groups, nor in body weight changes. Meanwhile, the response of spleen cells to ConA and the skin delayed hypersensitivity induced by DNFB 14 days after injury in group B were also enhanced compared with those in group A. Although the expression of PGE2 from peritoneal macrophages was lower, the content of hydroxyproline from burn wounds in group B was significantly higher than that in group A, and the ratio of type l to type III collagen in group B was significantly lower than that in group A. Compared with group A, the wound healing time in group B was significantly shortened (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

The low-fat and high-protein feeding diet with enriched arginine, omega-3 PUFA, glutamine could benefit the nutritional status after burn injury, thus improve the immunological function and promote wound healing.

Possible anti-Parkinson properties of N-(alpha-linolenoyl) tyrosine: a new molecule

Tyrosine is unable to cross the blood-brain barrier and is therefore unable to improve the status of brain dopamine (DA) and to provide relief for patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) or other DA-insufficient disorders. We report the creation of an amide bond molecule [N-(alpha-linolenoyl)tyrosine (NLT)] that combines tyrosine with a fatty acid mixture. NLT significantly improves the rotational behavior of rats [following unilateral striatal lesions (as a model for Parkinson's)] and overcomes the exaggerated eye-blinking induced by a potent DA-depleting agent (as a model for essential blepharospasm). These results are supported by the finding that NLT's mode of action, in striatum, is the same as the mode of action of D-amphetamine. They both induce an increase in the DA level, DA turnover and release.

The control of blepharospasm by essential fatty acids

Dopamine depletion induced by administration of Ro4-1284 produces a condition of rapid and repeated eye blinking in rats. This condition mimics the human disorder, blepharospasm, which often accompanies parkinsonism and other dopamine deficiency disorders. When given a 3-week course of a compound (SR-3) developed from a specific ratio of two free polyunsaturated fatty acids - linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid - the eye blinking rate following administration of Ro4-1284 is reduced to saline and no drug control levels. These results suggest a favorable prospect for essential fatty acids in general, and SR-3 in particular, to provide an improved therapeutic option for the clinical management of benign essential blepharospasm.

Transepidermal water loss and water content in the stratum corneum in infantile seborrhoeic dermatitis

Thirty-seven patients with clinically diagnosed infantile seborrhoeic dermatitis (ISD) were studied in an attempt to establish the significance of transepidermal water loss (TEWL) and water content in the stratum corneum, in active disease and after recovery. All the patients were treated daily with topically applied borage oil (containing 24% gamma-linolenic acid). With this regimen they were completely free from all skin symptoms within 3-4 weeks. Analyses of essential fatty acids in serum showed aberrations as previously described, with elevated levels of 18:1w9 and 20:2w6. TEWL and water content were recorded at the time of diagnosis and after treatment from the right forearm in skin that was free from symptoms and not treated with borage oil. Twenty-five healthy children in an age-matched group without skin disorders were used as controls. Significant differences in TEWL between patients and controls were found before treatment. After treatment no significant differences were found. There were no significant differences between controls and patients regarding water content in the stratum corneum. Gamma-linolenic acid is suggested to be of importance in maintaining normal TEWL and also in promoting recovery in patients suffering from ISD.

The effects of gamma-linolenic acid on breast pain and diabetic neuropathy: possible non-eicosanoid mechanisms

Gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) has recently been found to be beneficial in the management of breast pain and of diabetic neuropathy. GLA is a precursor of unsaturated fatty acids which are important in membrane structures, as second messengers in their own right and as precursors of eicosanoids. While the mechanisms of GLA action are likely to be complex, non-eicosanoid effects are probably of substantial importance. These effects include modification of membrane fluidity and of the functions of lipid-associated receptors and changes in the inositol cycle.

Treatment of diabetic neuropathy with gamma-linolenic acid. The gamma-Linolenic Acid Multicenter Trial Group

OBJECTIVE

To compare the effects of placebo and GLA on the course of mild diabetic neuropathy over 1 yr.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

We entered 111 patients with mild diabetic neuropathy from seven centers into a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled parallel study of GLA at a dose of 480 mg/day. MNCV, SNAP, CMAP, hot and cold thresholds, sensation, tendon reflexes, and muscle strength were assessed by standard tests in upper and lower limbs.

RESULTS

For all 16 parameters, the change over 1 yr in response to GLA was more favorable than the change with placebo, and for 13 parameters, the difference was statistically significant. Sex, age, and type of diabetes did not influence the result, but treatment was more effective in relatively well-controlled than in poorly-controlled diabetic patients.

CONCLUSIONS

GLA had a beneficial effect on the course of diabetic neuropathy.

Antagonists and inhibitors of lipid mediators in experimental inflammation of the cornea

In experimental immunogenic keratitis, provoked in rabbits by intracorneal injection of 20 microliters of human serum albumin (HSA), various anti-inflammatory agents were studied in their effects on corneal edema, neovascularisation and leukocyte infiltration. Prophylactic treatment with a corticosteroid completely prevented the occurrence of keratitis. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs such as a cyclooxygenase inhibitor partly prevented neovascularisation and corneal edema, a lipoxygenase inhibitor, a leukotriene antagonist or platelet-activating factor (PAF)-antagonist BN 52021 partially prevented mainly leukocyte infiltration. Prophylactic topical treatment with the poly-unsaturated fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid and columbinic acid or a dietary supplement with fish oil showed less symptoms of keratitis in all respects.

Effects of a combination of evening primrose oil (gamma linolenic acid) and fish oil (eicosapentaenoic + docahexaenoic acid) versus magnesium, and versus placebo in preventing pre-eclampsia

In a placebo controlled, partially double-blinded, clinical trial, a combination of evening primrose oil and fish oil was compared to Magnesium Oxide, and to a Placebo in preventing Pre-Eclampsia of Pregnancy. All were given as nutritional supplements for six months to a group of primiparous and multiparous pregnant women. Some of these women had personal or family histories of hypertension (21%). Only those patients who received prenatal care at the Central Maternity Hospital for Luanda were included in the study. Compared to the Placebo group (29%), the group receiving the mixture of evening primrose oil and fish oil containing Gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) had a significantly lower incidence of edema (13%, p = 0.004). The group receiving Magnesium Oxide had statistically significant fewer subjects who developed hypertension of pregnancy. There were 3 cases of eclampsia, all in the Placebo group.

Effect of essential fatty acids on tumor cells

An earlier study showed that essential fatty acids and their metabolites can kill tumor cells in vitro. This tumoricidal action can be correlated to an increase in generation of free radicals in the tumor cells. Evening primrose oil (EPO) is a rich source of linoleic acid and gamma-linolenic acid. We report that EPO can kill tumor cells both in vitro and in vivo. This tumoricidal action of EPO was associated with a threefold increase in superoxide generation. One of the factors that is capable of interfering with the cytotoxic action of fatty acids appears to be the protein content of the medium. Fatty acids can bind to protein and thus prevent their cytotoxic action.

Long-term use of gamma-linolenic acid-enriched fat emulsion (PFE 4501): case report

A new gamma-linolenic acid-enriched fat emulsion (PFE 4501) was given for 13 mo as part of a home parenteral nutrition regimen to a 28-yr-old patient with cystic fibrosis. Blood biochemistry, hematological data, and fatty acid profile were followed. No side effects were reported, and pulmonary function tests remained stable. gamma-Linolenic acid appears to be safe for clinical use and may benefit patients with derangements in essential fatty acid metabolism. The potential role of a gamma-linolenic acid-enriched intravenous fat emulsion is discussed.

Use of gamma-linolenic acid in the treatment of schizophrenia and tardive dyskinesia

There is good background evidence to suggest that essential fatty acids and their eicosanoid derivatives may play a role in schizophrenia and in with tardive dyskinesia. Trials involving treatment with essential fatty acids, or eicosanoids or drugs which stimulate eicosanoid synthesis have shown modestly promising results. Particularly favourable outcomes in both schizophrenia and tardive dyskinesia were associated with combined treatment using essential fatty acids and nutritional supplements.

The relationship between schizophrenia and essential fatty acid and eicosanoid metabolism

Essential fatty acids (EFAs) and their eicosanoid derivatives are important constituents of the brain and regulators of neuronal function. There is direct and indirect evidence of impaired metabolism of prostaglandin (PG)E1 in schizophrenia. There is also direct evidence of abnormal EFA biochemistry with plasma phospholipids from five populations and brain phospholipids from another all showing reduced levels of linoleic acid and elevated levels of 22-carbon EFAs of both n-6 and n-3 series. Clinical trials of PGE1 and of the PGE1 precursors, gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) and dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid (DGLA) have shown modest therapeutic effects. In view of lack of therapeutic process involving drugs based on the dopamine concept of schizophrenia, it is time for new approaches based on the EFA/PG concept to be evaluated thoroughly.

The use of gamma-linolenic acid in diabetic neuropathy

EF4 is an entirely new approach to the management of diabetic neuropathy. EF4 (providing gamma-linolenic acid or gamolenic acid, GLA) has been shown to reverse existing diabetic neuropathy in trials in seven centres. Diabetic animals and humans have a reduced ability to convert dietary linoleic acid to GLA. GLA and its metabolites are required for normal neuronal structure and function and a normal microcirculation. The lack of GLA and its metabolites may play a major role in the development of the neuropathy. EF4 helps to correct the biochemical defects, restores levels of GLA metabolites towards normal and produces highly significant clinical and neurophysiological improvements in diabetic neuropathy.

Effect of dietary alpha-linolenic acid on endotoxin-induced production of tumor necrosis factor by peritoneal macrophages in horses

A study was conducted to determine whether dietary supplements with alpha-linolenic acid altered the ability of equine peritoneal macrophages to produce tumor necrosis factor (TNF) in response to endotoxin. Peritoneal macrophages were harvested from 6 healthy adult horses before and after the horses were fed a nutritionally balanced ration that contained 8% linseed oil as a source of alpha-linolenic acid. The macrophages were cultured in media containing no additives (control), endotoxin (0.5 to 50 ng/ml), or the calcium ionophore, A23187. Macrophage supernatants were collected after 6 and 24 hours' incubation and stored at -70 C. Tumor necrosis factor activity was estimated by a modified in vitro cytotoxicity bioassay, using the murine fibrosarcoma cell line, WEHI 164 clone 13. The TNF activity after 6 and 24 hours' incubation was greater in culture media of macrophages exposed to endotoxin than in media from control macrophages. For macrophages cultured in media that contained endotoxin, neither the concentration of endotoxin nor incubation time had any effect on TNF activity. Endotoxin-induced macrophage production of TNF, as determined by measurement of TNF activity, was significantly less after horses were fed the alpha-linolenic acid-rich ration for 8 weeks.

Influence of an omega-3 fatty acid-enriched ration on in vivo responses of horses to endotoxin

Because certain inflammatory processes are dependent on the fatty acid composition of the cellular membrane, dietary manipulations that replace omega-6 fatty acids with omega-3 fatty acids may modify inflammatory responses. We investigated the effect of supplemental dietary linseed oil, containing the omega-3 fatty acid, alpha-linolenic acid, on in vivo responses of horses to endotoxin. One group of horses (n = 6) was fed a control pelleted ration (0% linseed oil), and another group of horses (n = 6) was fed an 8% linseed oil pelleted ration. After 8 weeks of consuming these rations, all horses were given 0.03 micrograms of Escherichia coli 055:B5 endotoxin/kg of body weight, infused over 30 minutes. Horses were monitored over 24 hours. Compared with baseline values within each ration group, endotoxin infusion caused significant (P less than 0.05) increase in rectal temperature, heart rate, and plasma concentration of thromboxane B2, 6-keto-prostaglandin F1 alpha, and fibrinogen and significant (P less than 0.05) decrease in total WBC count. Compared with baseline values within each ration group, endotoxin infusion failed to cause significant changes in prothrombin, activated partial thromboplastin, thrombin, or whole blood recalcification times, serum concentration of fibrin degradation products, PCV, or plasma total protein concentration. Before and after endotoxin infusion, horses given the linseed oil ration had longer mean whole blood recalcification time and activated partial thromboplastin time than did horses fed the control ration.

An animal model for intractable chronic lymphocytic leukemia

Lymphomas developed in mice treated with X-irradiation. The radiosensitivity of cells of the lymphomas had a bimodal frequency distribution. The cells of 11 lymphomas had approximately the same radiosensitivity as normal murine lymphocytes; 6 lymphomas were highly radioresistant. Radioresistant and radiosensitive lymphomas were analogous to intractable chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) and to responsive CLL in humans. The radioresistant lymphomas can be used to study the effect of therapeutic agents on the animal model for intractable CLL both in vitro and in vivo.

The response to endotoxin in guinea pigs after intravenous black currant seed oil

The influence on the metabolic response to endotoxin of three days of total parenteral nutrition with lipids high in gammalinolenic acid (18:3 omega 6, GLA) compared to soy oil (SO) was examined in acute operatively stressed guinea pigs. GLA is the precursor of dihomogammalinolenic acid (DHLA), the substrate for synthesis of "1" series prostaglandins such as PGE1, which have previously been shown to be protective in endotoxin lung injury and traumatic shock. Guinea pigs fed an intravenous diet containing black currant seed oil (BCO) emulsion (20% GLA) or soy oil emulsion (0% GLA) for 2.5 days had their arterial pH, pCO2, pO2, and bicarbonate measured at baseline and hourly during a 7-hr infusion of endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide (LPS), 2mg/kg) or saline. Plasma lactate and fatty acid profile analyses were performed at the end of the LPS infusion. Increased levels of GLA and DHLA were present in the plasma phospholipid fraction of animals fed the black currant seed oil diet, while soy-fed animals had only trace amounts of GLA. In addition, the ratio of DHLA to arachidonate was higher in animals receiving the black currant seed oil total parenteral nutrition (TPN). After 2 hr of LPS infusion, all animals exhibited the typical shock response resulting in metabolic acidosis characterized by a significant (p less than 0.05) drop in pH from 7.34 +/- .02 (SO) and 7.39 +/- .02 (BCO) at baseline to 7.14 +/- .05 and 7.22 +/- .04 by 7 hr for SO and BCO groups, respectively. Plasma lactate values at the end of the infusion were significantly elevated compared to saline in both groups (p less than 0.05).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

The effect of gamma-linolenic acid on human diabetic peripheral neuropathy: a double-blind placebo-controlled trial

Twenty-two patients with distal diabetic polyneuropathy confirmed both clinically and by objective nerve function studies, completed a double-blind, placebo-controlled study to assess the effect of dietary supplementation with gamma-linolenic acid on their neuropathy. Patients received either 360 mg gamma-linolenic acid (12 patients) or indistinguishable placebo capsules (10 patients) for 6 months. All patients were assessed at the beginning and end of the study period by neuropathy symptom and sign scoring, motor and sensory nerve conduction studies, and thermal threshold measurements. When compared with the placebo group, patients on gamma-linolenic acid showed statistically significant improvement in neuropathy symptom scores (p less than 0.001), median nerve motor conduction velocity (p less than 0.01) and compound muscle action potential amplitude (p less than 0.01), peroneal nerve motor conduction velocity (p less than 0.05) and compound muscle action potential amplitude (p less than 0.05), median (p less than 0.01) and sural (p less than 0.001) sensory nerve action potential amplitude and ankle heat threshold (p less than 0.001) and cold threshold (p less than 0.01) values. gamma-Linolenic acid therapy might have a useful role in the prevention and treatment of distal diabetic polyneuropathy.

[Significance and motivation of the clinical use of essential fatty acid derivatives, especially gamma-linolenic acid]

Although they were discovered in the first half of our century, essential fatty acids have started commanding clinical interest only during the last few years. Their vast possibilities for therapeutic use make basic knowledge of their chemical nature and physiologic significance a necessity. Essential fatty acids (linoleic and alpha-linolenic acid) are important not only in themselves but also as precursors of other polyunsaturated fatty acids. Besides, from some of these compounds an important series of substances is derived, such as prostaglandins, thromboxanes, prostacyclins, and leukotrienes. The sequence of enzymatic reactions on which the biosynthesis of these substances depends is altered in certain human pathologies. The key to the mechanism of action of some oils, such as evening primrose oil, is the fact that it contains as active principle the product of the blocked enzymatic reaction.

Inhibitory effects of mold oil including gamma-linolenate on platelet thrombus formation in mesenteric microvessels of the rat

Diet including mold oil from a lipid accumulative fungus, containing gamma-linolenic acid, showed an inhibitory effect on thrombus formation in the microvessels of rats by the light/dye method of the authors. Male Wistar rats were fed for 3 to 4 weeks with two series of experimental diets and were examined for thrombus formation. The thrombus formation times to totally occlude, ts, were 347 sec for (mold + soybean)-oil and 236 sec for (palm + soybean)-oil in the first series of diets and 1288 sec for mold oil, 538 sec for olive oil and 575 sec for safflower oil in the second series of diets. Fatty acid composition of plasma, erythrocyte and liver lipids showed an increase in arachidonate content with the diet including the mold oil. Higher arachidonate content seem favorable in inhibiting thrombus formation with increasing PGI2 formation. In terms of the level of lipid hydroperoxides, indicated as a desaturation index of constituent fatty acids, the higher desaturation index with safflower oil gave shorter ts, which suggested some oxygen derived free radicals from polyunsaturated fatty acids were involved in the mechanism of thrombogenesis study by this method.

Effects of a high-linoleate and a high-alpha-linolenate diet on spontaneous mammary tumourigenesis in mice

SHN mice were fed a high-linoleate diet, a high-alpha-linolenate diet or a control diet. Spontaneous mammary tumourigenesis was significantly inhibited in the high alpha-linolenate group compared to the other two groups, while little difference was observed among groups in the rates of lung metastasis. The dietary alpha-linolenate/linoleate balance affected the fatty acid patterns of tissue lipids. The triacylglycerol/phospholipid ratios and the fatty acid patterns were significantly different between the mammary glands and the mammary tumours. The results indicate that the dietary alpha-linolenate/linoleate balance affects the fatty acid composition and, in turn, spontaneous mammary tumourigenesis in mice.

alpha-Linolenic acid and long-chain omega-3 fatty acid supplementation in three patients with omega-3 fatty acid deficiency: effect on lymphocyte function, plasma and red cell lipids, and prostanoid formation

alpha-Linolenic acid deficiency is described in three patients. Observed clinical symptoms were hemorrhagic dermatitis, hemorrhagic folliculitis, skin atrophy, and scaly dermatitis. Supplementation with ethyl alpha-linolenate followed by a purified fish oil (EPA-oil) began to normalize symptoms within 10 d. The mitogenic response in isolated lymphocytes was reduced whereas the number of T lymphocytes increased significantly. Serum thromboxanes, urinary excretion of 2,3-dinor-6-keto-prostaglandin F1 alpha (PGI2-M), and bleeding time were unaffected. The results indicate that omega-3 fatty acids are essential for normal accumulation of erythrocyte omega-6 acids. The dietary intake of long-chain omega-3 acids required to obtain midnormal concentrations of omega-3 acids in plasma and erythrocyte lipids was estimated to be 350-400 mg/d (0.4% of calories), whereas the corresponding mean intake of alpha-linolenic acid was 990 mg/d (1.0% of calories). It is suggested that essential fatty acid requirement should be stated as grams or milligrams per day, similarly to other essential nutrients.

Gamma-linolenic acid for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: placebo-controlled comparison to D-amphetamine

In a Latin-square double-crossover with random assignment to sequence, 18 boys, aged 6-12 years, with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder received 1 month each of placebo, D-amphetamine, and Efamol (evening primrose oil containing gamma-linolenic acid, with vitamin E as preservative). Parents' ratings were noncontributory. Teachers' ratings showed a trend of Efamol effect between placebo and D-amphetamine. The trend reached significance (p less than 0.05) only on Conners Hyperactivity Factor. Dosage may be crucial; 8 Efamol capsules per day were used in this study. Heuristic data scrutiny suggested possible interaction (sequence effect). Further study with a different design and dose is suggested. This study does not establish Efamol as an effective treatment.

Suppression of monosodium urate crystal-induced acute inflammation by diets enriched with gamma-linolenic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid

A subcutaneous air pouch formed in Sprague-Dawley rats was used to study the effect of diets enriched in gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) (in plant seed oil) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) (in fish oil) on acute inflammation induced by monosodium urate crystals. The GLA-enriched diet suppressed significantly the cellular phase of inflammation (polymorphonuclear leukocyte accumulation, crystal phagocytosis, and lysosomal enzyme activity), but it had little effect on the fluid phase (exudate volume and protein concentration). In contrast, the EPA-enriched diet suppressed the fluid phase but not the cellular phase of inflammation. The findings indicate that the fluid and cellular phases of acute inflammation can be controlled independently. A combined diet of fish oil and plant seed oil (EPA-enriched and GLA-enriched) reduced both the cellular and fluid phases of inflammation. Thus, dietary provision of alternative substrates for oxidative metabolism (other than arachidonic acid) modifies monosodium urate crystal-induced acute inflammation.

The use of gamma linolenic acid, linoleic acid and natural vitamin E for the treatment of multicentric lymphoma in two dogs

The use of Gamma linolenic acid (GLA) and other essential fatty acid (EFA) metabolites in malignant cancer treatment in vitro and in vivo is briefly reviewed. Treatment of two dogs with multicentric lymphoma with large empirical daily doses of a combination of 40 mg gamma linolenic acid, 350 mg linoleic acid and 10 mg natural vitamin E per capsule resulted, after approximately one week, in slight to marked reduction in size of enlarged peripheral lymph nodes, spleen, skin nodules and tonsils. Both animals showed transient improved habitus and appetite, but deteriorated due to complications, apparently unrelated to therapy.

Modulation of immunogenic keratitis in rabbits by topical administration of poly-unsaturated fatty acids

Several unsaturated fatty acids are precursors of prostaglandins and leukotrienes. Depending on their precursor, these prostaglandins and leukotrienes have different biological characteristics. The effects of topically administered fatty acids on an experimentally provoked inflammatory keratitis were studied in rabbits. Intrastromal injection with human serum albumin induced in the cornea a ring-shaped infiltration with leukocytes, corneal edema and neovascularization. Arachidonic, gamma-linolenic, dihomo-gamma-linolenic (DHGL), eicosapentaenoic (EPA) and columbinic acid were given as eye drops in a suspension in hydroxypropylmethylcellulose 0.5% three times daily during the experiment. EPA, DHGL, columbinic, and gamma-linolenic, but not arachidonic acid, showed a significant inhibition of either leukocyte infiltration, edema or neovascularization. The inhibitory effects of these fatty acids may be caused by topical inhibition of the formation of prostaglandins and leukotrienes in the arachidonic acid cascade in the rabbit cornea.

Essential fatty acids, prostaglandins, and alcoholism: an overview

Essential fatty acids (EFAs) are major structural components of the brain and through their effects on membrane properties can influence nerve conduction, transmitter release, and transmitter action. Prostaglandins (PGs) derived from EFAs have profound behavioral effects and are also able to modify conduction and transmitter function. Effects of alcohol on EFAs and PGs are therefore good candidates for explaining at least some of the actions of alcohol on brain function. Ethanol has three main known actions on EFA and PG metabolism: it reduces blood linoleic acid levels and induces or exaggerates EFA deficiency states; it blocks metabolism of linoleic acid to EFA metabolites which are known to be important in brain structure; and it enhances conversion of the linoleic acid metabolite, dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid, to PGE1. This review demonstrates that some of the short-term behavioral effects of ethanol and some of its long-term adverse effects on brain, liver, and other tissues may be partly explicable in terms of ethanol actions on EFA and PG metabolism. Modification of such metabolism by dietary and other means has already been shown to influence the effects of alcohol and alcohol withdrawal in both humans and animals. This promises to be a fruitful source of investigation with substantial implications for the understanding and treatment of alcoholism.

Effects of gamma-linolenic acid supplementation on pregnant rats fed a zinc-deficient diet

The effects of dietary gamma-linolenic acid supplementation in the form of evening primrose oil were examined in pregnant zinc-deficient rats and subsequently in their newborn pups. This supplementation was beneficial, since it reduced pup mortality, increased mean litter size and maintained appetite throughout two thirds of the gestation period. Consequently, gamma-linolenic acid seems to correct some of the biological effects of zinc deficiency. It is suggested that evening primrose oil could be used in cases of zinc deficiency caused by metabolic disturbances.

Fat induced hypertension in rabbits: the effects of dietary linoleic and linolenic acid

It has been suggested that dietary linoleic and gamma-linolenic acid may be hypotensive. Fat enriched diets increase blood pressure, and the effects of linoleic and linolenic acids on this increase have been investigated. After a control period on a low fat diet, rabbits were given four fat enriched diets containing different proportions of linoleic, gamma-linolenic and alpha-linolenic acids for 8 weeks, and returned to the low fat control diet for 3 weeks. Blood pressures were measured non-invasively every day. Blood pressures increased from the 4th week of fat feeding. The blood pressure increase at 8 weeks was 10%, 13%, 15% and 14% respectively for primrose, starflower, safflower and olive oils (all P less than 0.001). Return to the low fat control diet for 3 weeks restored blood pressures to near control values. These results do not support the suggestion that either linoleic or gamma-linolenic acids are effective antihypertensive agents.

[Lipid metabolic indices in man during head-down tilt hypokinesia and their correction]

Twenty one test subjects exposed to head-down tilt for 120 days were subdivided to four groups: Group 1--nine subjects used as controls, Group 2--three bed rested subjects who performed regular exercises, Group 3--four bed rested subjects who were given selected drugs, including Vitamin F-99 that influenced lipid metabolism, and Group 4--four bed rested subjects who performed regular exercises and received Vitamin F-99. At different stages of bed rest and recovery the content of lipoprotein fractions and lipids of different classes in serum was measured by thin-layer chromatography. The concentration of cholesterol in biliary lipids was determined. In Group 1 and 2 subjects bed rest led to a drastic and significant increase of cholesterol esters in blood, a decrease of phospholipids, variations of triglycerides and non-esterified fatty acids, and a lower percentage content of alpha-lipoproteins. The use of Vitamin F-99 produced positive changes in the above parameters of lipid metabolism (it normalized the level of cholesterol and phospholipids). In Group 4 subjects the effect of exercise combined with drugs was most distinct.

Essential fatty acid supplementation in tardive dyskinesia

Preclinical and clinical observations suggest that enhancement of prostaglandin activity inhibits catecholamine release and may have antidyskinetic effects. A double-blind therapeutic trial with prostaglandin precursor essential fatty acids was conducted in 16 patients with tardive dyskinesia. No beneficial effects were seen.