Plant proximity perception dynamically modulates hormone levels and sensitivity in Arabidopsis

The shade avoidance syndrome (SAS) refers to a set of plant responses initiated after perception by the phytochromes of light enriched in far-red colour reflected from or filtered by neighbouring plants. These varied responses are aimed at anticipating eventual shading from potential competitor vegetation. In Arabidopsis thaliana, the most obvious SAS response at the seedling stage is the increase in hypocotyl elongation. Here, we describe how plant proximity perception rapidly and temporally alters the levels of not only auxins but also active brassinosteroids and gibberellins. At the same time, shade alters the seedling sensitivity to hormones. Plant proximity perception also involves dramatic changes in gene expression that rapidly result in a new balance between positive and negative factors in a network of interacting basic helix-loop-helix proteins, such as HFR1, PAR1, and BIM and BEE factors. Here, it was shown that several of these factors act as auxin- and BR-responsiveness modulators, which ultimately control the intensity or degree of hypocotyl elongation. It was deduced that, as a consequence of the plant proximity-dependent new, dynamic, and local balance between hormone synthesis and sensitivity (mechanistically resulting from a restructured network of SAS regulators), SAS responses are unleashed and hypocotyls elongate.

The potential roles of strigolactones and brassinosteroids in the autoregulation of nodulation pathway

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

The number of nodules formed on a legume root system is under the strict genetic control of the autoregulation of nodulation (AON) pathway. Plant hormones are thought to play a role in AON; however, the involvement of two hormones recently described as having a largely positive role in nodulation, strigolactones and brassinosteroids, has not been examined in the AON process.

METHODS

A genetic approach was used to examine if strigolactones or brassinosteroids interact with the AON system in pea (Pisum sativum). Double mutants between shoot-acting (Psclv2, Psnark) and root-acting (Psrdn1) mutants of the AON pathway and strigolactone-deficient (Psccd8) or brassinosteroid-deficient (lk) mutants were generated and assessed for various aspects of nodulation. Strigolactone production by AON mutant roots was also investigated.

KEY RESULTS

Supernodulation of the roots was observed in both brassinosteroid- and strigolactone-deficient AON double-mutant plants. This is despite the fact that the shoots of these plants displayed classic strigolactone-deficient (increased shoot branching) or brassinosteroid-deficient (extreme dwarf) phenotypes. No consistent effect of disruption of the AON pathway on strigolactone production was found, but root-acting Psrdn1 mutants did produce significantly more strigolactones.

CONCLUSIONS

No evidence was found that strigolactones or brassinosteroids act downstream of the AON genes examined. While in pea the AON mutants are epistatic to brassinosteroid and strigolactone synthesis genes, we argue that these hormones are likely to act independently of the AON system, having a role in the promotion of nodule formation.

An XA21-associated kinase (OsSERK2) regulates immunity mediated by the XA21 and XA3 immune receptors

The rice XA21 immune receptor kinase and the structurally related XA3 receptor confer immunity to Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo), the causal agent of bacterial leaf blight. Here we report the isolation of OsSERK2 (rice somatic embryogenesis receptor kinase 2) and demonstrate that OsSERK2 positively regulates immunity mediated by XA21 and XA3 as well as the rice immune receptor FLS2 (OsFLS2). Rice plants silenced for OsSerk2 display altered morphology and reduced sensitivity to the hormone brassinolide. OsSERK2 interacts with the intracellular domains of each immune receptor in the yeast two-hybrid system in a kinase activity-dependent manner. OsSERK2 undergoes bidirectional transphosphorylation with XA21 in vitro and forms a constitutive complex with XA21 in vivo. These results demonstrate an essential role for OsSERK2 in the function of three rice immune receptors and suggest that direct interaction with the rice immune receptors is critical for their function. Taken together, our findings suggest that the mechanism of OsSERK2-meditated regulation of rice XA21, XA3, and FLS2 differs from that of AtSERK3/BAK1-mediated regulation of Arabidopsis FLS2 and EFR.

iNID: an analytical framework for identifying network models for interplays among developmental signaling in Arabidopsis

Integration of internal and external cues into developmental programs is indispensable for growth and development of plants, which involve complex interplays among signaling pathways activated by the internal and external factors (IEFs). However, decoding these complex interplays is still challenging. Here, we present a web-based platform that identifies key regulators and Network models delineating Interplays among Developmental signaling (iNID) in Arabidopsis. iNID provides a comprehensive resource of (1) transcriptomes previously collected under the conditions treated with a broad spectrum of IEFs and (2) protein and genetic interactome data in Arabidopsis. In addition, iNID provides an array of tools for identifying key regulators and network models related to interplays among IEFs using transcriptome and interactome data. To demonstrate the utility of iNID, we investigated the interplays of (1) phytohormones and light and (2) phytohormones and biotic stresses. The results revealed 34 potential regulators of the interplays, some of which have not been reported in association with the interplays, and also network models that delineate the involvement of the 34 regulators in the interplays, providing novel insights into the interplays collectively defined by phytohormones, light, and biotic stresses. We then experimentally verified that BME3 and TEM1, among the selected regulators, are involved in the auxin-brassinosteroid (BR)-blue light interplay. Therefore, iNID serves as a useful tool to provide a basis for understanding interplays among IEFs.

Exogenously applied 24-epi brassinolide reduces lignification and alters cell wall carbohydrate biosynthesis in the secondary xylem of Liriodendron tulipifera

The roles of brassinosteroids (BRs) in vasculature development have been implicated based on an analysis of Arabidopsis BR mutants and suspension cells of Zinnia elegans. However, the effects of BRs in vascular development of a woody species have not been demonstrated. In this study, 24-epi brassinolide (BL) was applied to the vascular cambium of a vertical stem of a 2-year-old Liriodendron, and the resulting chemical and anatomical phenotypes were characterized to uncover the roles of BRs in secondary xylem formation of a woody species. The growth in xylary cells was clearly promoted when treated with BL. Statistical analysis indicated that the length of both types of xylary cells (fiber and vessel elements) increased significantly after BL application. Histochemical analysis demonstrated that BL-induced growth promotion involved the acceleration of cell division and cell elongation. Histochemical and expression analysis of several lignin biosynthetic genes indicated that most genes in the phenylpropanoid pathway were significantly down-regulated in BL-treated stems compared to that in control stems. Chemical analysis of secondary xylem demonstrated that BL treatment induced significant modification in the cell wall carbohydrates, including biosynthesis of hemicellulose and cellulose. Lignocellulose crystallinity decreased significantly, and the hemicellulose composition changed with significant increases in galactan and arabinan. Thus, BL has regulatory roles in the biosynthesis and modification of secondary cell wall components and cell wall assembly during secondary xylem development in woody plants.

The tomato leucine-rich repeat receptor-like kinases SlSERK3A and SlSERK3B have overlapping functions in bacterial and nematode innate immunity

The Somatic Embryogenesis Receptor Kinase 3 (SERK3)/Brassinosteroid (BR) Insensitive 1-Associated Kinase 1 (BAK1) is required for pattern-triggered immunity (PTI) in Arabidopsis thaliana and Nicotiana benthamiana. Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) has three SlSERK members. Two of them exhibit particularly high levels of sequence similarity to AtSERK3 and, therefore, were named SlSERK3A and SlSERK3B. To characterize a role for SlSERK3A and SlSERK3B in defense, we suppressed each gene individually or co-silenced both using virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) in the tomato cv. Moneymaker. Co-silencing SlSERK3A and SlSERK3B resulted in spontaneous necrotic lesions and reduced sensitivity to exogenous BR treatment. Silencing either SlSERK3A or SlSERK3B resulted in enhanced susceptibility to root knot-nematode and to non-pathogenic Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato (Pst) DC3000 hrcC indicating that both SlSERK3s are positive regulators of defense. Interestingly, silencing SlSERK3B, but not SlSERK3A, resulted in enhanced susceptibility to the pathogenic strain Pst DC3000 indicating distinct roles for these two SlSERK3 paralogs. SlSERK3A and SlSERK3B are active kinases, localized to the plasma membrane, and interact in vivo with the Flagellin Sensing 2 receptor in a flg22-dependent manner. Complementation of the Atserk3/bak1-4 mutant with either SlSERK3A or SlSERK3B partially rescued the mutant phenotype. Thus, SlSERK3A and SlSERK3B are likely to constitute tomato orthologs of BAK1.

Isolation and characterization of the brassinosteroid receptor gene (GmBRI1) from Glycine max

Brassinosteroids (BRs) constitute a group of steroidal phytohormones that contribute to a wide range of plant growth and development functions. The genetic modulation of BR receptor genes, which play major roles in the BR signaling pathway, can create semi-dwarf plants that have great advantages in crop production. In this study, a brassinosteroid insensitive gene homologous with AtBRI1 and other BRIs was isolated from Glycine max and designated as GmBRI1. A bioinformatic analysis revealed that GmBRI1 shares a conserved kinase domain and 25 tandem leucine-rich repeats (LRRs) that are characteristic of a BR receptor for BR reception and reaction and bear a striking similarity in protein tertiary structure to AtBRI1. GmBRI1 transcripts were more abundant in soybean hypocotyls and could be upregulated in response to exogenous BR treatment. The transformation of GmBRI1 into the Arabidopsis dwarf mutant bri1-5 restored the phenotype, especially regarding pod size and plant height. Additionally, this complementation is a consequence of a restored BR signaling pathway demonstrated in the light/dark analysis, root inhibition assay and BR-response gene expression. Therefore, GmBRI1 functions as a BR receptor to alter BR-mediated signaling and is valuable for improving plant architecture and enhancing the yield of soybean.

Effects of 24-epibrassinolide on plant growth, osmotic regulation and ion homeostasis of salt-stressed canola

This study evaluated effects of foliar spraying 24-epibrassinoide (24-EBL) on the growth of salt-stressed canola. Seedlings at the four-leaf stage were treated with 150 mM NaCl and different concentrations of 24-EBL (10(-6), 10(-8), 10(-10), 10(-12) M) for 15 days. A concentration of 10(-10) M 24-EBL was chosen as optimal and used in a subsequent experiment on plant biomass and leaf water potential parameters. The results showed that 24-EBL mainly promoted shoot growth of salt-stressed plants and also ameliorated leaf water status. Foliar spraying of salt-stressed canola with 24-EBL increased osmotic adjustment ability in all organs, especially in younger leaves and roots. This was mainly due to an increase of free amino acid content in upper leaves, soluble sugars in middle leaves, organic acids and proline in lower leaves, all of these compounds in roots, as well as essential inorganic ions. Na(+) and Cl(-) sharply increased in different organs under salt stress, and 24-EBL reduced their accumulation. 24-EBL improved the uptake of K(+), Ca(2+), Mg(2+) and NO3(-) in roots, which were mainly transported to upper leaves, while NO3(-) was mainly transported to middle leaves. Thus, 24-EBL improvements in ion homeostasis of K(+)/Na(+), Ca(2+)/Na(+), Mg(2+)/Na(+) and NO3(-)/Cl(-), especially in younger leaves and roots, could be explained. As most important parts, younger leaves and roots were the main organs protected by 24-EBL via improvement in osmotic adjustment ability and ion homeostasis. Further, physiological status of growth of salt-stressed canola was ameliorated after 24-EBL treatment.

Activation of polyamine catabolic enzymes involved in diverse responses against epibrassinolide-induced apoptosis in LNCaP and DU145 prostate cancer cell lines

Epibrassinolide (EBR) is a biologically active compound of the brassinosteroids, steroid-derived plant growth regulator family. Generally, brassinosteroids are known for their cell expansion and cell division-promoting roles. Recently, EBR was shown as a potential apoptotic inducer in various cancer cells without affecting the non-tumor cell growth. Androgen signaling controls cell proliferation through the interaction with the androgen receptor (AR) in the prostate gland. Initially, the development of prostate cancer is driven by androgens. However, in later stages, a progress to the androgen-independent stage is observed, resulting in metastatic prostate cancer. The androgen-responsive or -irresponsive cells are responsible for tumor heterogeneity, which is an obstacle to effective anti-cancer therapy. Polyamines are amine-derived organic compounds, known for their role in abnormal cell proliferation as well as during malignant transformation. Polyamine catabolism-targeting agents are being investigated against human cancers. Many chemotherapeutic agents including polyamine analogs have been demonstrated to induce polyamine catabolism that depletes polyamine levels and causes apoptosis in tumor models. In our study, we aimed to investigate the mechanism of apoptotic cell death induced by EBR, related with polyamine biosynthetic and catabolic pathways in LNCaP (AR+), DU145 (AR-) prostate cancer cell lines and PNT1a normal prostate epithelial cell line. Induction of apoptotic cell death was observed in prostate cancer cell lines after EBR treatment. In addition, EBR induced the decrease of intracellular polyamine levels, accompanied by a significant ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) down-regulation in each prostate cancer cell and also modulated ODC antizyme and antizyme inhibitor expression levels only in LNCaP cells. Catabolic enzymes SSAT and PAO expression levels were up-regulated in both cell lines; however, the specific SSAT and PAO siRNA treatments prevented the EBR-induced apoptosis only in LNCaP (AR+) cells. In a similar way, MDL 72,527, the specific PAO and SMO inhibitor, co-treatment with EBR during 24 h, reduced the formation of cleaved fragments of PARP in LNCaP (AR+) cells.

Antagonistic regulation of growth and immunity by the Arabidopsis basic helix-loop-helix transcription factor homolog of brassinosteroid enhanced expression2 interacting with increased leaf inclination1 binding bHLH1

Plants need to finely balance resources allocated to growth and immunity to achieve optimal fitness. A tradeoff between pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP)-triggered immunity (PTI) and brassinosteroid (BR)-mediated growth was recently reported, but more information about the underlying mechanisms is needed. Here, we identify the basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) transcription factor homolog of brassinosteroid enhanced expression2 interacting with IBH1 (HBI1) as a negative regulator of PTI signaling in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). HBI1 expression is down-regulated in response to different PAMPs. HBI1 overexpression leads to reduced PAMP-triggered responses. This inhibition correlates with reduced steady-state expression of immune marker genes, leading to increased susceptibility to the bacterium Pseudomonas syringae. Overexpression of the HBI1-related bHLHs brassinosteroid enhanced expression2 (BEE2) and cryptochrome-interacting bHLH (CIB1) partially inhibits immunity, indicating that BEE2 and CIB1 may act redundantly with HBI1. In contrast to its expression pattern upon PAMP treatment, HBI1 expression is enhanced by BR treatment. Also, HBI1-overexpressing plants are hyperresponsive to BR and more resistant to the BR biosynthetic inhibitor brassinazole. HBI1 is nucleus localized, and a mutation in a conserved leucine residue within the first helix of the protein interaction domain impairs its function in BR signaling. Interestingly, HBI1 interacts with several inhibitory atypical bHLHs, which likely keep HBI1 under negative control. Hence, HBI1 is a positive regulator of BR-triggered responses, and the negative effect of PTI is likely due to the antagonism between BR and PTI signaling. This study identifies a novel component involved in the complex tradeoff between innate immunity and BR-regulated growth.

Revisiting the evolutionary history and roles of protein phosphatases with Kelch-like domains in plants

Protein phosphatases with Kelch-like domains (PPKL) are members of the phosphoprotein phosphatases family present only in plants and alveolates. PPKL have been described as positive effectors of brassinosteroid (BR) signaling in plants. Most of the evidence supporting this role has been gathered using one of the four homologs in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), brassinosteroid-insensitive1 suppressor (BSU1). We reappraised the roles of the other three members of the family, BSL1, BSL2, and BSL3, through phylogenetic, functional, and genetic analyses. We show that BSL1 and BSL2/BSL3 belong to two ancient evolutionary clades that have been highly conserved in land plants. In contrast, BSU1-type genes are exclusively found in the Brassicaceae and display a remarkable sequence divergence, even among closely related species. Simultaneous loss of function of the close paralogs BSL2 and BSL3 brings about a peculiar array of phenotypic alterations, but with marginal effects on BR signaling; loss of function of BSL1 is, in turn, phenotypically silent. Still, the products of these three genes account for the bulk of PPKL-related activity in Arabidopsis and together have an essential role in the early stages of development that BSU1 is unable to supplement. Our results underline the functional relevance of BSL phosphatases in plants and suggest that BSL2/BSL3 and BSU1 may have contrasting effects on BR signaling. Given that BSU1-type genes have likely undergone a functional shift and are phylogenetically restricted, we caution that inferences based on these genes to the whole family or to other species may be misleading.

After-ripening induced transcriptional changes of hormonal genes in wheat seeds: the cases of brassinosteroids, ethylene, cytokinin and salicylic acid

Maintenance and release of seed dormancy is regulated by plant hormones; their levels and seed sensitivity being the critical factors. This study reports transcriptional regulation of brassinosteroids (BR), ethylene (ET), cytokinin (CK) and salicylic acid (SA) related wheat genes by after-ripening, a period of dry storage that decays dormancy. Changes in the expression of hormonal genes due to seed after-ripening did not occur in the anhydrobiotic state but rather in the hydrated state. After-ripening induced dormancy decay appears to be associated with imbibition mediated increase in the synthesis and signalling of BR, via transcriptional activation of de-etiolated2, dwarf4 and brassinosteroid signaling kinase, and repression of brassinosteroid insensitive 2. Our analysis is also suggestive of the significance of increased ET production, as reflected by enhanced transcription of 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid oxidase in after-ripened seeds, and tight regulation of seed response to ET in regulating dormancy decay. Differential transcriptions of lonely guy, zeatin O-glucosyltransferases and cytokinin oxidases, and pseudo-response regulator between dormant and after-ripened seeds implicate CK in the regulation of seed dormancy in wheat. Our analysis also reflects the association of dormancy decay in wheat with seed SA level and NPR independent SA signaling that appear to be regulated transcriptionally by phenylalanine ammonia lyase, and whirly and suppressor of npr1 inducible1 genes, respectively. Co-expression clustering of the hormonal genes implies the significance of synergistic and antagonistic interaction between the different plant hormones in regulating wheat seed dormancy. These results contribute to further our understanding of the molecular features controlling seed dormancy in wheat.

Characterization and genetic mapping of a Photoperiod-sensitive dwarf 1 locus in rice (Oryza sativa L.)

Plant height is an important agronomic trait for crop architecture and yield. Most known factors determining plant height function in gibberellin or brassinosteroid biosynthesis or signal transduction. Here, we report a japonica rice (Oryza sativa ssp. japonica) dominant dwarf mutant, Photoperiod-sensitive dwarf 1 (Psd1). The Psd1 mutant showed impaired cell division and elongation, and a severe dwarf phenotype under long-day conditions, but nearly normal growth in short-day. The plant height of Psd1 mutant could not be rescued by gibberellin or brassinosteroid treatment. Genetic analysis with R1 and F2 populations determined that Psd1 phenotype was controlled by a single dominant locus. Linkage analysis with 101 tall F2 plants grown in a long-day season, which were derived from a cross between Psd1 and an indica cultivar, located Psd1 locus on chromosome 1. Further fine-mapping with 1017 tall F2 plants determined this locus on an 11.5-kb region. Sequencing analysis of this region detected a mutation site in a gene encoding a putative lipid transfer protein; the mutation produces a truncated C-terminus of the protein. This study establishes the genetic foundation for understanding the molecular mechanisms regulating plant cell division and elongation mediated by interaction between genetic and environmental factors.

Brassinosteroids regulate plant growth through distinct signaling pathways in Selaginella and Arabidopsis

Brassinosteroids (BRs) are growth-promoting steroid hormones that regulate diverse physiological processes in plants. Most BR biosynthetic enzymes belong to the cytochrome P450 (CYP) family. The gene encoding the ultimate step of BR biosynthesis in Arabidopsis likely evolved by gene duplication followed by functional specialization in a dicotyledonous plant-specific manner. To gain insight into the evolution of BRs, we performed a genomic reconstitution of Arabidopsis BR biosynthetic genes in an ancestral vascular plant, the lycophyte Selaginella moellendorffii. Selaginella contains four members of the CYP90 family that cluster together in the CYP85 clan. Similar to known BR biosynthetic genes, the Selaginella CYP90s exhibit eight or ten exons and Selaginella produces a putative BR biosynthetic intermediate. Therefore, we hypothesized that Selaginella CYP90 genes encode BR biosynthetic enzymes. In contrast to typical CYPs in Arabidopsis, Selaginella CYP90E2 and CYP90F1 do not possess amino-terminal signal peptides, suggesting that they do not localize to the endoplasmic reticulum. In addition, one of the three putative CYP reductases (CPRs) that is required for CYP enzyme function co-localized with CYP90E2 and CYP90F1. Treatments with a BR biosynthetic inhibitor, propiconazole, and epi-brassinolide resulted in greatly retarded and increased growth, respectively. This suggests that BRs promote growth in Selaginella, as they do in Arabidopsis. However, BR signaling occurs through different pathways than in Arabidopsis. A sequence homologous to the Arabidopsis BR receptor BRI1 was absent in Selaginella, but downstream components, including BIN2, BSU1, and BZR1, were present. Thus, the mechanism that initiates BR signaling in Selaginella seems to differ from that in Arabidopsis. Our findings suggest that the basic physiological roles of BRs as growth-promoting hormones are conserved in both lycophytes and Arabidopsis; however, different BR molecules and BRI1-based membrane receptor complexes evolved in these plants.

Brassinosteroid enhances resistance to fusarium diseases of barley

Fusarium pathogens are among the most damaging pathogens of cereals. These pathogens have the ability to attack the roots, seedlings, and flowering heads of barley and wheat plants with disease, resulting in yield loss and head blight disease and also resulting in the contamination of grain with mycotoxins harmful to human and animal health. There is increasing evidence that brassinosteroid (BR) hormones play an important role in plant defense against both biotic and abiotic stress agents and this study set out to determine if and how BR might affect Fusarium diseases of barley. Application of the epibrassinolide (epiBL) to heads of 'Lux' barley reduced the severity of Fusarium head blight (FHB) caused by Fusarium culmorum by 86% and reduced the FHB-associated loss in grain weight by 33%. Growth of plants in soil amended with epiBL resulted in a 28 and 35% reduction in Fusarium seedling blight (FSB) symptoms on the Lux and 'Akashinriki' barley, respectively. Microarray analysis was used to determine whether growth in epiBL-amended soil changed the transcriptional profile in stem base tissue during the early stages of FSB development. At 24 and 48 h post F. culmorum inoculation, there were 146 epiBL-responsive transcripts, the majority being from the 48-h time point (n = 118). Real-time reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction analysis validated the results for eight transcripts, including five defense genes. The results of gene expression studies show that chromatin remodeling, hormonal signaling, photosynthesis, and pathogenesis-related genes are activated in plants as a result of growth in epiBL.

A comprehensive genetic study reveals a crucial role of CYP90D2/D2 in regulating plant architecture in rice (Oryza sativa)

Brassinosteroids (BRs) are essential regulators of plant architecture. Understanding how BRs control plant height and leaf angle would facilitate development of new plant type varieties by biotechnology. A number of mutants involved in BR biosynthesis have been isolated but many of them lack detailed genetic analysis. Here, we report the isolation and characterization of a severe dwarf mutant, chromosome segment deleted dwarf 1 (csdd1), which was deficient in BR biosynthesis in rice. We isolated the mutant by screening a tissue culture-derived population, cloned the gene by mapping, and confirmed its function by complementary and RNAi experiments, combined with physiological and chemical analysis. We showed that the severe dwarf phenotype was caused by a complete deletion of a cytochrome P450 gene, CYP90D2/D2, which was further confirmed in two independent T-DNA insertion lines in different genetic backgrounds and by RNA interference. Our chemical analysis suggested that CYP90D2/D2 might catalyze C-3 dehydrogenation step in BR biosynthesis. We have demonstrated that the CYP90D2/D2 gene plays a more important role than previously reported. Allelic mutations of CYP90D2/D2 confer varying degrees of dwarfism and leaf angle, thus providing useful information for molecular breeding in grain crop plants.

Nitric oxide and brassinosteroids mediated fungal endophyte-induced volatile oil production through protein phosphorylation pathways in Atractylodes lancea plantlets

Fungal endophytes have been isolated from almost every plant, infecting their hosts without causing visible disease symptoms, and yet have still proved to be involved in plant secondary metabolites accumulation. To decipher the possible physiological mechanisms of the endophytic fungus-host interaction, the role of protein phosphorylation and the relationship between endophytic fungus-induced kinase activity and nitric oxide (NO) and brassinolide (BL) in endophyte-enhanced volatile oil accumulation in Atractylodes lancea plantlets were investigated using pharmacological and biochemical approaches. Inoculation with the endophytic fungus Gilmaniella sp. AL12 enhanced the activities of total protein phosphorylation, Ca²⁺-dependent protein kinase, and volatile oil accumulation in A. lancea plantlets. The upregulation of protein kinase activity could be blocked by the BL inhibitor brassinazole. Furthermore, pretreatments with the NO-specific scavenger cPTIO significantly reduced the increased activities of protein kinases in A. lancea plantlets inoculated with endophytic fungus. Pretreatments with different protein kinase inhibitors also reduced fungus-induced NO production and volatile oil accumulation, but had barely no effect on the BL level. These data suggest that protein phosphorylation is required for endophyte-induced volatile oil production in A. lancea plantlets, and that crosstalk between protein phosphorylation and the NO pathway may occur and act as a downstream signaling event of the BL pathway.

An E3 ubiquitin ligase, ERECT LEAF1, functions in brassinosteroid signaling of rice

A spontaneous rice mutant, erect leaf1 (elf1-1), produced a dwarf phenotype with erect leaves and short grains. Physiological analyses suggested that elf1-1 is brassinosteroid-insensitive, so we hypothesized that ELF1 encodes a positive regulator of brassinosteroid signaling. ELF1, identified by means of positional cloning, encodes a protein with both a U-box domain and ARMADILLO (ARM) repeats. U-box proteins have been shown to function as E3 ubiquitin ligases; in fact, ELF1 possessed E3 ubiquitin ligase activity in vitro. However, ELF1 itself does not appear to be polyubiquitinated. Mutant phenotypes of 2 more elf1 alleles indicate that the entire ARM repeats is indispensable for ELF1 activity. These results suggest that ELF1 ubiquitinates target proteins through an interaction mediated by ARM repeats. Similarities in the phenotypes of elf1 and d61 mutants (mutants of brassinosteroid receptor gene OsBRI1), and in the regulation of ELF1 and OsBRI1 expression, imply that ELF1 functions as a positive regulator of brassinosteroid signaling in rice.

A mathematical model for the coreceptors SOMATIC EMBRYOGENESIS RECEPTOR-LIKE KINASE1 and SOMATIC EMBRYOGENESIS RECEPTOR-LIKE KINASE3 in BRASSINOSTEROID INSENSITIVE1-mediated signaling

Brassinosteroids (BRs) are key regulators in plant growth and development. The main BR-perceiving receptor in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) is BRASSINOSTEROID INSENSITIVE1 (BRI1). Seedling root growth and hypocotyl elongation can be accurately predicted using a model for BRI1 receptor activity. Genetic evidence shows that non-ligand-binding coreceptors of the SOMATIC EMBRYOGENESIS RECEPTOR-LIKE KINASE (SERK) family are essential for BRI1 signal transduction. A relatively simple biochemical model based on the properties of SERK loss-of-function alleles explains complex physiological responses of the BRI1-mediated BR pathway. The model uses BRI1-BR occupancy as the central estimated parameter and includes BRI1-SERK interaction based on mass action kinetics and accurately describes wild-type root growth and hypocotyl elongation. Simulation studies suggest that the SERK coreceptors primarily act to increase the magnitude of the BRI1 signal. The model predicts that only a small number of active BRI1-SERK complexes are required to carry out BR signaling at physiological ligand concentration. Finally, when calibrated with single mutants, the model predicts that roots of the serk1serk3 double mutant are almost completely brassinolide (BL) insensitive, while the double mutant hypocotyls remain sensitive. This points to residual BRI1 signaling or to a different coreceptor requirement in shoots.

Teaching an old hormone new tricks: cytosolic Ca2+ elevation involvement in plant brassinosteroid signal transduction cascades

Brassinosteroids (BRs) are hormones that control many aspects of plant growth and development, acting at the cell level to promote division and expansion. BR regulation of plant and plant cell function occurs through altered expression of many genes. Transcriptional reprogramming downstream from cell perception of this hormone is currently known to be mediated by a phosphorylation/dephosphorylation ("phosphorelay") cascade that alters the stability of two master transcription regulators. Here, we provide evidence that BR perception by their receptor also causes an elevation in cytosolic Ca(2+), initiating a Ca(2+) signaling cascade in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) cell cytosol. BR-dependent increases in the expression of some genes (INDOLE-3-ACETIC ACID-INDUCIBLE1 and PHYTOCHROME B ACTIVATION-TAGGED SUPPRESSOR1) were impaired in wild-type plants by a Ca(2+) channel blocker and also in the defense-no-death (dnd1) mutant, which lacks a functional cyclic GMP-activated cell membrane Ca(2+)-conducting channel. Alternatively, mutations that impair the BR phosphorelay cascade did not much affect the BR-dependent expression of these genes. Similar effects of the Ca(2+) channel blocker and dnd1 mutation were observed on a BR plant growth phenotype, deetiolation of the seedling hypocotyl. Further evidence presented in this report suggests that a BR-dependent elevation in cyclic GMP may be involved in the Ca(2+) signaling cascade initiated by this hormone. The work presented here leads to a new model of the molecular steps that mediate some of the cell responses to this plant hormone.

Synergistic effect of auxins and brassinosteroids on the growth and regulation of metabolite content in the green alga Chlorella vulgaris (Trebouxiophyceae)

The relationships between brassinosteroids (BRs) (brassinolide, BL; 24-epiBL; 28-homoBL; castasterone, CS; 24-epiCS; 28-homoCS) and auxins (indole-3-acetic acid, IAA; indole-3-butyric acid, IBA; indole-3-propionic acid, IPA) in the regulation of cell number, phytohormone level and metabolism in green alga Chlorella vulgaris were investigated. Exogenously applied auxins had the highest biological activity in algal cells at 50 μM. Among the auxins, IAA was characterized by the highest activity, while IBA - by the lowest. BRs at 0.01 μM were characterized by the highest biological activity in relation to auxin-treated and untreated cultures of C. vulgaris. The application of 50 μM IAA stimulated the level of all detected endogenous BRs in C. vulgaris cells. The stimulatory effect of BRs in green algae was arranged in the following order: BL > 24-epiBL > 28-homoBL > CS > 24-epiCS > 28-homoCS. Auxins cooperated synergistically with BRs stimulating algal cell proliferation and endogenous accumulation of proteins, chlorophylls and monosaccharides in C. vulgaris. The highest stimulation of algal growth and the contents of analyzed biochemical parameters were observed for the mixture of BL with IAA, whereas the lowest in the culture treated with both 28-homoCS and IBA. However, regardless of the applied mixture of BRs with auxins, the considerable increase in cell number and the metabolite accumulation was found above the level obtained in cultures treated with any single phytohormone. Obtained results confirm that both groups of plant hormones cooperate synergistically in the control of growth and metabolism of unicellular green alga C. vulgaris.

Identification of Arabidopsis BAK1-associating receptor-like kinase 1 (BARK1) and characterization of its gene expression and brassinosteroid-regulated root phenotypes

Brassinosteroids (BRs) activate the BRI1 and BAK1/SERK3 membrane receptor complex, which leads to a wide range of changes in gene expression, plant growth and development. As an initial step to elucidate additional roles of BAK1, we cloned a BAK1-binding protein, BAK1-Associating Receptor-Like Kinase 1 (BARK1), and characterized its gene expression and root phenotypes. BARK1 is a putative membrane LRR-RLK (leucine-rich repeat receptor-like kinase) protein that specifically binds to BAK1 and its homologs. Careful examination of BARK1 expression using transgenic plants expressing a green fluorescent protein (GFP) reporter under the control of the native BARK1 promoter (BARK1p::GFP) revealed that this gene is ubiquitously expressed in most plant tissues, and shows especially strong expression in the xylem vasculature of primary and lateral roots as well as in mature pollen. Interestingly, the expression of the BARK1 gene was increased in the BR biosynthetic loss-of-function mutant, det2, and a loss-of-function mutant of BR signaling, bak1-3. In contrast, this gene was down-regulated in the bzr1-1D plant, which is a BR signal gain-of-function mutant. BARK1-overexpressing transgenic plants clearly enhanced primary root growth in a dose-dependent manner, and their roots were hypersensitive to BR-induced root growth inhibition. In addition, both the number and density of lateral roots were dramatically increased in the BARK1 transgenic plants in a dose-dependent manner. Together with observations that ARF (AUXIN RESPONSE FACTOR) genes are up-regulated in the BARK1 overexpressor, we suggest that the BARK1 overexpressor phenotype with more lateral roots is partly due to the increased expression of ARF genes in this genetic background. In conclusion, BAK1-interacting BARK1 protein may be involved in BR-mediated plant growth and development such as in lateral roots via auxin regulation.

24-Epibrassinolide regulates photosynthesis, antioxidant enzyme activities and proline content of Cucumis sativus under salt and/or copper stress

Brassinosteroids have been extensively used to overcome various abiotic stresses. But its role in combined stress of salt and excess copper remains unexplored. Seeds of two cultivars (Rocket and Jumbo) of Cucumis sativus were grown in sand amended with copper (100 mg kg(-1)), and developed seedlings were exposed to salt stress in the form of NaCl (150 mM) at the 30-day stage of growth for 3 days. These seedlings were subsequently sprayed with 0 or 0.01 μM of 24-epibrassinolide (EBL) at the 35-day stage. The plants exposed to NaCl and Cu in combination exhibited a significant decline in fresh and dry mass of plant, chlorophyll content, activities of carbonic anhydrase, net photosynthetic rate and maximum quantum yield of the PSII primary photochemistry followed by NaCl and Cu stress alone, more severely in Jumbo than in Rocket. However, the follow-up treatment with EBL to the stressed and nonstressed plant improved growth, chlorophyll content, carbonic anhydrase activity and photosynthetic efficiency, and further enhanced the activity of various antioxidant enzymes viz. catalase, peroxidase and superoxide dismutase and content of proline at the 40-day stage of growth, and the response of the hormone was more effective in Rocket than in Jumbo. The elevated level of antioxidant enzymes as well as proline could have conferred tolerance to the NaCl- and/or Cu-stressed plants resulting in improved growth, water relations and photosynthetic attributes. Furthermore, antioxidant enzyme activity and proline content were more enhanced in Rocket than in Jumbo cultivar.

Exogenous application of brassinosteroid offers tolerance to salinity by altering stress responses in rice variety Pusa Basmati-1

Plant steroidal hormones, brassinosteroids, play a pivotal role in variety of plant developmental processes and adaptation to various environmental stresses. The present work investigates the response of various stress markers upon exogenous application of 24-epibrassinolide (EBL) on Pusa Basmati-1, a commercially important rice variety, under salt stress conditions. Rice seeds after treatment with different concentrations of NaCl alone or in combination with different concentrations of 24-epibrassinolide (EBL) were analysed for various growth parameters, protein, proline and malondialdehyde content (MDA) and antioxidant enzymes activities. The seedlings exposed to NaCl exhibited a significant decline in growth parameters and changes in the levels of antioxidant enzymes, however, treatment with EBL showed an improvement in growth, levels of protein and proline content and antioxidant enzymes activity. The enhanced levels of MDA content during salt stress in rice seedlings was decreased with EBL treatment. Further, the treatment with EBL increased the expression of various oxidative stress marker genes, although to different levels. Expression of various brassinosteroids (OsBRI1, OsDWF4) and salt (SalT) responsive genes, revealed the down regulation of OsDWF4 with application of EBL and upregulation of SalT in presence of salt stress thereby confirming the efficacy of the treatments. Interestingly, a significant down regulation of SalT gene was observed on application of EBL along with salt compared to salt treatment alone. On the other hand, the application of EBL alone and in combination with salt has resulted in upregulation of OsBRI1.

Brassinosteroid regulates seed size and shape in Arabidopsis

Seed development is important for agriculture productivity. We demonstrate that brassinosteroid (BR) plays crucial roles in determining the size, mass, and shape of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) seeds. The seeds of the BR-deficient mutant de-etiolated2 (det2) are smaller and less elongated than those of wild-type plants due to a decreased seed cavity, reduced endosperm volume, and integument cell length. The det2 mutant also showed delay in embryo development, with reduction in both the size and number of embryo cells. Pollination of det2 flowers with wild-type pollen yielded seeds of normal size but still shortened shape, indicating that the BR produced by the zygotic embryo and endosperm is sufficient for increasing seed volume but not for seed elongation, which apparently requires BR produced from maternal tissues. BR activates expression of SHORT HYPOCOTYL UNDER BLUE1, MINISEED3, and HAIKU2, which are known positive regulators of seed size, but represses APETALA2 and AUXIN RESPONSE FACTOR2, which are negative regulators of seed size. These genes are bound in vivo by the BR-activated transcription factor BRASSINAZOLE-RESISTANT1 (BZR1), and they are known to influence specific processes of integument, endosperm, and embryo development. Our results demonstrate that BR regulates seed size and seed shape by transcriptionally modulating specific seed developmental pathways.

Identification of microRNA 395a in 24-epibrassinolide-regulated root growth of Arabidopsis thaliana using microRNA arrays

Brassinosteroids (BRs) are endogenous plant hormones and are essential for normal plant growth and development. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) of Arabidopsis thaliana are involved in mediating cell proliferation in leaves, stress tolerance, and root development. The specifics of BR mechanisms involving miRNAs are unknown. Using customized miRNA array analysis, we identified miRNAs from A. thaliana ecotype Columbia (Col-0) regulated by 24-epibrassinolide (EBR, a highly active BR). We found that miR395a was significantly up-regulated by EBR treatment and validated its expression under these conditions. miR395a was over expressed in leaf veins and root tissues in EBR-treated miR395a promoter::GUS plants. We integrated bioinformatics methods and publicly available DNA microarray data to predict potential targets of miR395a. GUN5—a multifunctional protein involved in plant metabolic functions such as chlorophyll synthesis and the abscisic acid (ABA) pathway—was identified as a possible target. ABI4 and ABI5, both genes positively regulated by ABA, were down-regulated by EBR treatment. In summary, our results suggest that EBR regulates seedling development and root growth of A. thaliana through miR395a by suppressing GUN5 expression and its downstream signal transduction.

Brassinosteroids-Induced Systemic Stress Tolerance was Associated with Increased Transcripts of Several Defence-Related Genes in the Phloem in Cucumis sativus

Brassinosteroids (BRs), a group of naturally occurring plant steroidal compounds, are essential for plant growth, development and stress tolerance. Recent studies showed that BRs could induce systemic tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses; however, the molecular mechanisms by which BRs signals lead to responses in the whole plant are largely unknown. In this study, 24-epibrassinosteroid (EBR)-induced systemic tolerance in Cucumis sativus L. cv. Jinyan No. 4 was analyzed through the assessment of symptoms of photooxidative stress by chlorophyll fluorescence imaging pulse amplitude modulation. Expression of defense/stress related genes were induced in both treated local leaves and untreated systemic leaves by local EBR application. With the suppressive subtractive hybridization (SSH) library using cDNA from the phloem sap of EBR-treated plants as the tester and distilled water (DW)-treated plants as the driver, 14 transcripts out of 260 clones were identified. Quantitative Real Time-Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-qPCR) validated the specific up-regulation of these transcripts. Of the differentially expressed transcripts with known functions, transcripts for the selected four cDNAs, which encode an auxin-responsive protein (IAA14), a putative ankyrin-repeat protein, an F-box protein (PP2), and a major latex, pathogenesis-related (MLP)-like protein, were induced in local leaves, systemic leaves and roots after foliar application of EBR onto mature leaves. Our results demonstrated that EBR-induced systemic tolerance is accompanied with increased transcript of genes in the defense response in other organs. The potential role of phloem mRNAs as signaling components in mediating BR-regulated systemic resistance is discussed.

SUB1A-mediated submergence tolerance response in rice involves differential regulation of the brassinosteroid pathway

· Submergence 1A (SUB1A), is an ethylene response factor (ERF) that confers submergence tolerance in rice (Oryza sativa) via limiting shoot elongation during the inundation period. SUB1A has been proposed to restrict shoot growth by modulating gibberellic acid (GA) signaling. · Our transcriptome analysis indicated that SUB1A differentially regulates genes associated with brassinosteroid (BR) synthesis during submergence. Consistent with the gene expression data, the SUB1A genotype had higher brassinosteroid levels after submergence compared to the intolerant genotype. Tolerance to submergence can be activated in the intolerant genotype by pretreatment with exogenous brassinolide, which results in restricted shoot elongation during submergence. · BR induced a GA catabolic gene, resulting in lower GA levels in SUB1A plants. BR treatment also induced the DELLA protein SLR1, a known repressor of GA responses such as shoot elongation. We propose that BR limits GA levels during submergence in the SUB1A rice through a GA catabolic enzyme as part of an early response and may repress GA responses by inducing SLR1 after several days of submergence. · Our results suggest that BR biosynthesis is regulated in a SUB1A-dependent manner during submergence and is involved in modulating the GA signaling and homeostasis.

BSKs are partially redundant positive regulators of brassinosteroid signaling in Arabidopsis

Arabidopsis thaliana brassinosteroid signaling kinases (BSKs) constitute a receptor-like cytoplasmic kinase sub-family (RLCK-XII) with 12 members. Previous analysis demonstrated a positive role for BSK1 and BSK3 in the initial steps of brassinosteroid (BR) signal transduction. To investigate the function of BSKs in plant growth and BR signaling, we characterized T-DNA insertion lines for eight BSK genes (BSK1-BSK8) and multiple mutant combinations. Simultaneous elimination of three BSK genes caused alterations in growth and the BR response, and the most severe phenotypes were observed in the bsk3,4,7,8 quadruple and bsk3,4,6,7,8 pentuple mutants, which displayed reduced rosette size, leaf curling and enhanced leaf inclination. In addition, upon treatment with 24-epibrassinolide, these mutants showed reduced hypocotyl elongation, enhanced root growth and alteration in the expression of BR-responsive genes. Some mutant combinations also showed antagonistic interactions. In support of a redundant function in BR signaling, multiple BSKs interacted in vivo with the BR receptor BRI1, and served as its phosphorylation substrates in vitro. The BIN2 and BIL2 GSK3-like kinases, which are negative regulators of BR signaling, interacted in vivo with BSKs and phosphorylated them in vitro, probably at different sites to BRI1. This study demonstrates redundant biological functions for BSKs, and suggests the existence of a regulatory link between BSKs and GSK3-like kinases.

Plant hormones in arbuscular mycorrhizal symbioses: an emerging role for gibberellins

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Arbuscular mycorrhizal symbioses are important for nutrient acquisition in >80 % of terrestrial plants. Recently there have been major breakthroughs in understanding the signals that regulate colonization by the fungus, but the roles of the known plant hormones are still emerging. Here our understanding of the roles of abscisic acid, ethylene, auxin, strigolactones, salicylic acid and jasmonic acid is discussed, and the roles of gibberellins and brassinosteroids examined.

METHODS

Pea mutants deficient in gibberellins, DELLA proteins and brassinosteroids are used to determine whether fungal colonization is altered by the level of these hormones or signalling compounds. Expression of genes activated during mycorrhizal colonization is also monitored.

KEY RESULTS

Arbuscular mycorrhizal colonization of pea roots is substantially increased in gibberellin-deficient na-1 mutants compared with wild-type plants. This is reversed by application of GA3. Mutant la cry-s, which lacks gibberellin signalling DELLA proteins, shows reduced colonization. These changes were parallelled by changes in the expression of genes associated with mycorrhizal colonization. The brassinosteroid-deficient lkb mutant showed no change in colonization.

CONCLUSIONS

Biologically active gibberellins suppress arbuscule formation in pea roots, and DELLA proteins are essential for this response, indicating that this role occurs within the root cells.

Brassinosteroids regulate the differential growth of Arabidopsis hypocotyls through auxin signaling components IAA19 and ARF7

Brassinosteroids (BRs) are an important class of phytohormones which regulates a wide range of physiological processes. Genetic and physiological studies have revealed that BR responses usually depend on an intact auxin signaling pathway. Here, we demonstrate that high BR concentration or enhanced BR signaling induce the differential growth of etiolated hypocotyls and result in the morphological changes, while auxin-resistant mutants, msg2 (dominant mutant of IAA19) and arf7, are insensitive to the BR effect and can partially suppress the phenotype of bzr1-D (dominant mutant of BZR1 with enhanced BR signaling). Interestingly, BZR1 protein can directly bind to the promoter regions of both IAA19 and ARF7, indicating that IAA19 and ARF7 mediate the BR-induced differential growth by serving as direct targets of BZR1. Systemic microarray analysis revealed that a number of BR-responsive genes showed reduced BR response in msg2, confirming that BR employs auxin signaling components IAA19 and ARF7 to modulate the specific downstream processes. These results provide informative clues on the crosstalk of BR-auxin signaling and the mechanisms of BR-auxin effects in regulating differential growth.

Effects of brassinosteroid analogues on total phenols, antioxidant activity, sugars, organic acids and yield of field grown endive (Cichorium endivia L.)

BACKGROUND

Cichorium endivia L., either cooked or eaten raw in salads, is a favourite cultivated vegetable around the world and the popularity is attributed to its healthy properties, which are mainly due to its high levels of antioxidant compounds and high content of minerals, provitamin A and vitamins. Brassinosteroids are a family of hormones that are found in plants and which serve as potent growth promoters. The effects of two brassinosteroid analogues, DI-31 and DI-100, were evaluated at concentrations of 4, 8 and 12 ppm together with a seaweed extract and amino acid mixture called Tomex Amin to enhance their activity.

RESULTS

All treatments with DI-100 and DI-31 resulted in the highest production increases. The chemical variables related to endive quality, such as moisture, carbon and nitrogen content, sugar and organic acid content were similar in the control and treated endives. Total antioxidant activity and total phenols increased significantly in endive treated with brassinosteroid analogues.

CONCLUSION

The results showed that sprayed brassinosteroid analogues mixed with Tomex Amin may play an important role in increasing the yield and the contents of total antioxidant activity and total phenols of field grown endives.

BZR1 and BES1 participate in regulation of glucosinolate biosynthesis by brassinosteroids in Arabidopsis

The effect of 24-epibrassinolide (EBR) on glucosinolate biosynthesis in Arabidopsis thaliana was investigated in the present study by using mutants and transgenic plants involved in brassinosteroid (BR) biosynthesis and signal transduction, as well as glucosinolate biosynthesis. The results showed that EBR significantly decreased the contents of major aliphatic glucosinolates including glucoiberin (S3), glucoraphanin (S4), and glucoerucin (T4), as well as the indolic glucosinolates glucobrassicin (IM) and neoglucobrassicin (1IM). In addition, a significantly higher level of glucosinolates accumulated in the BR-deficient mutant cpd and a dramatically lower glucosinolate content in the transgenic plant DWF4-ox overexpressing the BR biosynthetic gene DWF4 compared with their related wild-types, confirmed the repressing effect of BR on glucosinolate biosynthesis. BRI1, the receptor of BR signal transduction, was involved in regulation of glucosinolate biosynthesis by BR. Furthermore, the observation of reduced content of glucosinolates and lower expression levels of glucosinolate biosynthetic genes in 35S-BZR1/bzr1-1D and bes1-D plants compared with the corresponding wild-types suggested that BZR1 and BES1, two important components in BR signal transduction, are responsible for the inhibiting role of BR in glucosinolate biosynthesis. The disappearance of the repressing effect of BR on glucosinolate content in the myb28, myb34, and myb122 mutants indicated that these three MYB factors are important for the regulation of BR in glucosinolate biosynthesis.

Introgression of novel traits from a wild wheat relative improves drought adaptation in wheat

Root architecture traits are an important component for improving water stress adaptation. However, selection for aboveground traits under favorable environments in modern cultivars may have led to an inadvertent loss of genes and novel alleles beneficial for adapting to environments with limited water. In this study, we elucidate the physiological and molecular consequences of introgressing an alien chromosome segment (7DL) from a wild wheat relative species (Agropyron elongatum) into cultivated wheat (Triticum aestivum). The wheat translocation line had improved water stress adaptation and higher root and shoot biomass compared with the control genotypes, which showed significant drops in root and shoot biomass during stress. Enhanced access to water due to higher root biomass enabled the translocation line to maintain more favorable gas-exchange and carbon assimilation levels relative to the wild-type wheat genotypes during water stress. Transcriptome analysis identified candidate genes associated with root development. Two of these candidate genes mapped to the site of translocation on chromosome 7DL based on single-feature polymorphism analysis. A brassinosteroid signaling pathway was predicted to be involved in the novel root responses observed in the A. elongatum translocation line, based on the coexpression-based gene network generated by seeding the network with the candidate genes. We present an effective and highly integrated approach that combines root phenotyping, whole-plant physiology, and functional genomics to discover novel root traits and the underlying genes from a wild related species to improve drought adaptation in cultivated wheat.

Silencing of tomato RBOH1 and MPK2 abolishes brassinosteroid-induced H₂O₂ generation and stress tolerance

Brassinosteroids (BRs) are involved in the regulation of plant growth, development and stress responses. While the signalling pathways for BR-regulated plant growth and development are well studied, the mechanisms by which BRs regulate plant stress tolerance remain largely unclear. Here we showed that 24-epibrassinolide (EBR), which induced tolerance to oxidative and heat stress in tomato, was also capable of elevating the transcript levels of RBOH1, MPK1 and MPK2, increasing apoplastic H2 O2 accumulation, and enhancing activation of MPK1/2. Virus-induced gene silencing of RBOH1, MPK1, MPK2 and MPK1/2 resulted in reduced stress tolerance. Silencing of RBOH1 had no effect on the transcripts of MPK1 and MPK2 but inhibited MPK1/2 activation and H2 O2 accumulation. Silencing of either MPK1 or MPK2, on the other hand, reduced RBOH1 transcript, H2 O2 accumulation and MPK1/2 activity. BR-induced tolerance and MPK1/2 activation were compromised in RBOH1-, MPK2- and MPK1/2-silenced plants but not in MPK1-silenced plants. These results suggested that MPK2 played a more critical role than MPK1 in EBR-induced apoplastic H2 O2 accumulation. RBOH1, MPK1 and MPK2 were involved in the stress tolerance and BR-induced stress tolerance likely involved a positive feedback loop among RBOH1, H2 O2 and MPK2, leading to sustained apoplastic accumulation of H2 O2 and related signalling processes.

Kinase activity of OsBRI1 is essential for brassinosteroids to regulate rice growth and development

Brassinosteroids (BRs) are steroid hormones that participate in multiple biological processes. In this paper, we characterized a classic rice mutant Fn189 (dwarf54, d54) showing semi-dwarf stature and erect leaves. The coleoptile elongation and root growth was less affected in Fn189 than wild-type plant by the exogenous application of eBL, the most active form of BRs. Lamina joint inclination assay and morphological analysis in darkness further showed that Fn189 mutant plant was insensitive to exogenous eBL. Through map-based cloning, Fn189 was found to be a novel allelic mutant of the DWARF 61 (D61) gene, which encodes the putative BRs receptor OsBRI1. A single base mutation caused the I834F substitution in the OsBRI1 kinase domain. Consequently, kinase activity of OsBRI1 was found to decrease dramatically. Taken together, the kinase activity of OsBRI1 is essential for brassinosteroids to regulate normal plant growth and development in rice.

Brassinosteroid control of shoot gravitropism interacts with ethylene and depends on auxin signaling components

PREMISE OF THE STUDY

To reach favorable conditions for photosynthesis, seedlings grow upward when deprived of light upon underground germination. To direct their growth, they use their negative gravitropic capacity. Negative gravitropism is under tight control of multiple hormones.

METHODS

By counting the number of standing plants in a population or by real time monitoring of the reorientation of gravistimulated seedlings of Arabidopsis thaliana, we evaluated the negative gravitropism of ethylene or brassinosteroid (BR) treated plants. Meta-analysis of transcriptomic data on AUX/IAA genes was gathered, and subsequent mutant analysis was performed.

KEY RESULTS

Ethylene and BR have opposite effects in regulating shoot gravitropism. Lack of BR enhances gravitropic reorientation in 2-d-old seedlings, whereas ethylene does not. Lack of ethylene signaling results in enhanced BR sensitivity. Ethylene and BRs regulate overlapping sets of AUX/IAA genes. BRs regulate a wider range of auxin signaling components than ethylene.

CONCLUSIONS

Upward growth in seedlings depends strongly on the internal hormonal balance. Endogenous ethylene stimulates, whereas BRs reduce negative gravitropism in a manner that depends on the function of different, yet overlapping sets of auxin signaling components.

Brassinosteroid production and signaling differentially control cell division and expansion in the leaf

Brassinosteroid (BR) hormones control plant growth through acting on both cell expansion and division. Here, we examined the role of BRs in leaf growth using the Arabidopsis BR-deficient mutant constitutive photomorphogenesis and dwarfism (cpd). We show that the reduced size of cpd leaf blades is a result of a decrease in cell size and number, as well as in venation length and complexity. Kinematic growth analysis and tissue-specific marker gene expression revealed that the leaf phenotype of cpd is associated with a prolonged cell division phase and delayed differentiation. cpd-leaf-rescue experiments and leaf growth analysis of BR biosynthesis and signaling gain-of-function mutants showed that BR production and BR receptor-dependent signaling differentially control the balance between cell division and expansion in the leaf. Investigation of cell cycle markers in leaves of cpd revealed the accumulation of mitotic proteins independent of transcription. This correlated with an increase in cyclin-dependent kinase activity, suggesting a role for BRs in control of mitosis.

Role of brassinosteroids in alleviation of phenanthrene-cadmium co-contamination-induced photosynthetic inhibition and oxidative stress in tomato

Heavy metal pollution often occurs together with organic contaminants. Brassinosteroids (BRs) induce plant tolerance to several abiotic stresses, including phenanthrene (PHE) and cadmium (Cd) stress. However, the role of BRs in PHE+Cd co-contamination-induced stress amelioration is unknown. Here, the interactive effects of PHE, Cd, and 24-epibrassinolide (EBR; a biologically active BR) were investigated in tomato plants. The application of Cd (100 µM) alone was more phytotoxic than PHE applied alone (100 µM); however, their combined application resulted in slightly improved photosynthetic activity and pigment content compared with Cd alone after a 40 d exposure. Accumulation of reactive oxygen species and membrane lipid peroxidation were induced by PHE and/or Cd; however, the differences in effect were insignificant between Cd and PHE+Cd. The foliar application of EBR (0.1 µM) to PHE- and/or Cd-stressed plants alleviated photosynthetic inhibition and oxidative stress by causing enhancement of the activity of the enzymes and related transcript levels of the antioxidant system, secondary metabolism, and the xenobiotic detoxification system. Additionally, PHE and/or Cd residues were significantly decreased in both the leaves and roots after application of EBR, more specifically in PHE+Cd-stressed plants when treated with EBR, indicating a possible improvement in detoxification of these pollutants. The findings thus suggest a potential interaction of EBR and PHE for Cd stress alleviation. These results advocate a positive role for EBR in reducing pollutant residues for food safety and also strengthening phytoremediation.

Brassinosteroids suppress rice defense against root-knot nematodes through antagonism with the jasmonate pathway

The importance of phytohormone balance is increasingly recognized as central to the outcome of plant-pathogen interactions. Next to their well-known developmental role, brassinosteroids (BR) were recently found to be involved in plant innate immunity. In this study, we examined the role of BR in rice (Oryza sativa) innate immunity during infection with the root-knot nematode Meloidogyne graminicola, and we studied the inter-relationship with the jasmonate (JA) pathway. Exogenous epibrassinolide (BL) supply at low concentrations induced susceptibility in the roots whereas high concentrations of BL enforced systemic defense against this nematode. Upon high exogenous BL supply on the shoot, quantitative reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) confirmed a strong feedback inhibitory effect, leading to reduced BR biosynthesis in the root. Moreover, we demonstrate that the immune suppressive effect of BR is at least partly due to negative cross-talk with the JA pathway. Mutants in the BR biosynthesis or signaling pathway accumulate slightly higher levels of the immediate JA-precursor 12-oxo-phytodienoic acid, and qRT-PCR data showed that the BR and JA pathway are mutually antagonistic in rice roots. Collectively, these results suggest that the balance between the BR and JA pathway is an effective regulator of the outcome of the rice-M. graminicola interaction.

Studies on the rice LEAF INCLINATION1 (LC1), an IAA-amido synthetase, reveal the effects of auxin in leaf inclination control

The angle of rice leaf inclination is an important agronomic trait and closely related to the yields and architecture of crops. Although few mutants with altered leaf angles have been reported, the molecular mechanism remains to be elucidated, especially whether hormones are involved in this process. Through genetic screening, a rice gain-of-function mutant leaf inclination1, lc1-D, was identified from the Shanghai T-DNA Insertion Population (SHIP). Phenotypic analysis confirmed the exaggerated leaf angles of lc1-D due to the stimulated cell elongation at the lamina joint. LC1 is transcribed in various tissues and encodes OsGH3-1, an indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) amido synthetase, whose homolog of Arabidopsis functions in maintaining the auxin homeostasis by conjugating excess IAA to various amino acids. Indeed, recombinant LC1 can catalyze the conjugation of IAA to Ala, Asp, and Asn in vitro, which is consistent with the decreased free IAA amount in lc1-D mutant. lc1-D is insensitive to IAA and hypersensitive to exogenous BR, in agreement with the microarray analysis that reveals the altered transcriptions of genes involved in auxin signaling and BR biosynthesis. These results indicate the crucial roles of auxin homeostasis in the leaf inclination control.

Effects of 24-epibrassinolide on nitrogen metabolism in cucumber seedlings under Ca(NO(3))(2) stress

Ca(NO(3))(2) accumulation is a major factor that limits greenhouse production in China. The present investigation was carried out to study the effect of 24-epibrassinolide (EBL) on nitrogen metabolism (including contents of NO(3)(-), NH(4)(+) and amino acids and related enzymes activities) in cucumber seedlings (Cucumis sativus L. cv. Jinyou No. 4) under 80 mM Ca(NO(3))(2) stress. This study found that exogenous EBL significantly reduced the accumulation of NO(3)(-) and NH(4)(+) by Ca(NO(3))(2), and enhanced the inactivated enzymes activities involved in the nitrogen metabolism. In addition, EBL alleviated the inhibition of photosynthesis nitrogen-use efficiency by Ca(NO(3))(2). Increased total amino acids by EBL under stress increased the precursor of proteins biosynthesis, thus promoting the biosynthesis nitrogen containing compounds. The presence of Ca(NO(3))(2) increased polyamines level, which might result from the increased content of free putrescine that is harmful to plant growth. However, exogenous EBL induced a further increase in total polyamines. The increase is likely caused by the elevated contents of conjugated and bound forms of polyamines. In summary, exogenously EBL compensated for the damage/losses by Ca(NO(3))(2) stress to some extent through the regulation of nitrogen metabolism and metabolites.

Brassinosteroids inhibit in vitro angiogenesis in human endothelial cells

Antiangiogenic activity of the brassinosteroid plant hormones (BRs) and their derivative cholestanon was investigated in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) and in human microvascular endothelial cells (HMEC-1). 24-Epibrassinolide and 28-homocastasterone from group of 21 tested natural BRs inhibited migration of HUVEC cells. Seven tested BRs decreased the number of tubes significantly. Synthetic analogue cholestanon inhibited angiogenesis in vitro more effectively than natural BRs. Because of the similarity of BRs to human steroids, we have also studied interactions of BRs with human steroid receptors. Synthetic BRs cholestanon showed agonistic effects on estrogen-receptor-α, estrogen-receptor-β and androgen receptor. Of the natural BRs, 24-epibrassinolide was found to be a weak antagonist of estrogen-receptor-α (ERα). Our results provide the first evidence that large group of BRs can inhibit in vitro angiogenesis of primary endothelial cells. BRs constitute a novel group of human steroid receptor activators or inhibitors with capacity to inhibit angiogenesis.

Arabidopsis PIZZA has the capacity to acylate brassinosteroids

Brassinosteroids (BRs) affect a wide range of developmental processes in plants and compromised production or signalling of BRs causes severe growth defects. To identify new regulators of plant organ growth, we searched the Arabidopsis FOX (Full-length cDNA Over-eXpressor gene) collection for mutants with altered organ size and isolated two overexpression lines that display typical BR deficient dwarf phenotypes. The phenotype of these lines, caused by an overexpression of a putative acyltransferase gene PIZZA (PIZ), was partly rescued by supplying exogenous brassinolide (BL) and castasterone (CS), indicating that endogenous BR levels are rate-limiting for the growth of PIZ overexpression lines. Our transcript analysis further showed that PIZ overexpression leads to an elevated expression of genes involved in BR biosynthesis and a reduced expression of BR inactivating hydroxylases, a transcriptional response typical to low BR levels. Taking the advantage of relatively high endogenous BR accumulation in a mild bri1-301 background, we found that overexpression of PIZ results in moderately reduced levels of BL and CS and a strong reduction of typhasterol (TY) and 6-deoxocastasterone (6-deoxoCS), suggesting a role of PIZ in BR metabolism. We tested a set of potential substrates in vitro for heterologously expressed PIZ and confirmed its acyltransferase activity with BL, CS and TY. The PIZ gene is expressed in various tissues but as reported for other genes involved in BR metabolism, the loss-of-function mutants did not display obvious growth phenotypes under standard growth conditions. Together, our data suggest that PIZ can modify BRs by acylation and that these properties might help modulating endogenous BR levels in Arabidopsis.

Hydrogen peroxide functions as a secondary messenger for brassinosteroids-induced CO2 assimilation and carbohydrate metabolism in Cucumis sativus

Brassinosteroids (BRs) are potent regulators of photosynthesis and crop yield in agricultural crops; however, the mechanism by which BRs increase photosynthesis is not fully understood. Here, we show that foliar application of 24-epibrassinolide (EBR) resulted in increases in CO(2) assimilation, hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) accumulation, and leaf area in cucumber. H(2)O(2) treatment induced increases in CO(2) assimilation whilst inhibition of the H(2)O(2) accumulation by its generation inhibitor or scavenger completely abolished EBR-induced CO(2) assimilation. Increases of light harvesting due to larger leaf areas in EBR- and H(2)O(2)-treated plants were accompanied by increases in the photochemical efficiency of photosystem II (Φ(PSII)) and photochemical quenching coefficient (q(P)). EBR and H(2)O(2) both activated carboxylation efficiency of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate oxygenase/carboxylase (Rubisco) from analysis of CO(2) response curve and in vitro measurement of Rubisco activities. Moreover, EBR and H(2)O(2) increased contents of total soluble sugar, sucrose, hexose, and starch, followed by enhanced activities of sugar metabolism such as sucrose phosphate synthase, sucrose synthase, and invertase. Interestingly, expression of transcripts of enzymes involved in starch and sugar utilization were inhibited by EBR and H(2)O(2). However, the effects of EBR on carbohydrate metabolisms were reversed by the H(2)O(2) generation inhibitor diphenyleneodonium (DPI) or scavenger dimethylthiourea (DMTU) pretreatment. All of these results indicate that H(2)O(2) functions as a secondary messenger for EBR-induced CO(2) assimilation and carbohydrate metabolism in cucumber plants. Our study confirms that H(2)O(2) mediates the regulation of photosynthesis by BRs and suggests that EBR and H(2)O(2) regulate Calvin cycle and sugar metabolism via redox signaling and thus increase the photosynthetic potential and yield of crops.

Benefits of brassinosteroid crosstalk

Brassinosteroids (BRs) are a group of phytohormones that regulate various biological processes in plants. Interactions and crosstalk between BRs and other plant hormones control a broad spectrum of physiological and developmental processes. In this review, we examine recent findings which indicate that BR signaling components mainly interact with the signaling elements of other hormones at the transcriptional level. Our major challenge is to understand how BR signaling independently, or in conjunction with other hormones, controls different BR-regulated activities. The application of a range of biotechnological strategies based on the modulation of BR content and its interplay with other plant growth regulators (PGRs) could provide a unique tool for the genetic improvement of crop productivity in a sustainable manner.

Effects of 24-epibrassinolide on the photosynthetic characteristics, antioxidant system, and chloroplast ultrastructure in Cucumis sativus L. under Ca(NO(3))(2) stress

The effects of 0.1 μM 24-epibrassinolide (EBL) on plant growth (plant height, leaf area, fresh weight, and dry weight), chlorophyll content, photosynthetic characteristics, antioxidant enzymes, and chloroplast ultrastructure were investigated using cucumber seedlings (Cucumis sativus L. cv. Jinyou No. 4) with 80 mM Ca(NO(3))(2) to induce stress. The presence of Ca(NO(3))(2) caused significant reductions in net photosynthetic rate (P(N)), stomatal conductance (Gs), intercellular CO(2) concentration (Ci), and transpiration rate (Tr) of leaves. In addition, Ca(NO(3))(2) markedly reduced the chlorophyll content and inhibited photochemical activity, including the actual photochemical efficiency (ΦPSII). In contrast, EBL increased the chlorophyll content, especially chlorophyll b, and minimized the harmful effects on photosynthesis caused by the Ca(NO(3))(2). The application of EBL to the plants subjected to Ca(NO(3))(2)-enhanced photochemical activity. EBL protected the photosynthetic membrane system from oxidative damage due to up-regulating the capacity of the antioxidant systems. Microscopic analyses revealed that Ca(NO(3))(2) affected the structure of the photosynthetic apparatus and membrane system and induced damage of granal thylakoid layers, while EBL recovered the typical shape of chloroplasts and promoted the formation of grana. Taken together, EBL compensated for damage/losses by Ca(NO(3))(2) due to the regulation of photosynthetic characteristics and the antioxidant system.

A mathematical model for BRASSINOSTEROID INSENSITIVE1-mediated signaling in root growth and hypocotyl elongation

Brassinosteroid (BR) signaling is essential for plant growth and development. In Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), BRs are perceived by the BRASSINOSTEROID INSENSITIVE1 (BRI1) receptor. Root growth and hypocotyl elongation are convenient downstream physiological outputs of BR signaling. A computational approach was employed to predict root growth solely on the basis of BRI1 receptor activity. The developed mathematical model predicts that during normal root growth, few receptors are occupied with ligand. The model faithfully predicts root growth, as observed in bri1 loss-of-function mutants. For roots, it incorporates one stimulatory and two inhibitory modules, while for hypocotyls, a single inhibitory module is sufficient. Root growth as observed when BRI1 is overexpressed can only be predicted assuming that a decrease occurred in the BRI1 half-maximum response values. Root growth appears highly sensitive to variation in BR concentration and much less to reduction in BRI1 receptor level, suggesting that regulation occurs primarily by ligand availability and biochemical activity.

Interaction of brassinosteroids and polyamines enhances copper stress tolerance in raphanus sativus

Brassinosteroids (BRs) and polyamines (PAs) regulate various responses to abiotic stress, but their involvement in the regulation of copper (Cu) homeostasis in plants exposed to toxic levels of Cu is poorly understood. This study provides an analysis of the effects of exogenously applied BRs and PAs on radish (Raphanus sativus) plants exposed to toxic concentrations of Cu. The interaction of 24-epibrassinolide (EBR, an active BR) and spermidine (Spd, an active PA) on gene expression and the physiology of radish plants resulted in enhanced tolerance to Cu stress. Results indicated that the combined application of EBR and Spd modulated the expression of genes encoding PA enzymes and genes that impact the metabolism of indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) and abscisic acid (ABA) resulting in enhanced Cu stress tolerance. Altered expression of genes implicated in Cu homeostasis appeared to be the main effect of EBR and Spd leading to Cu stress alleviation in radish. Ion leakage, in vivo imaging of H(2)O(2), comet assay, and improved tolerance of Cu-sensitive yeast strains provided further evidence for the ability of EBR and Spd to improve Cu tolerance significantly. The study indicates that co-application of EBR and Spd is an effective approach for Cu detoxification and the maintenance of Cu homeostasis in plants. Therefore, the use of these compounds in agricultural production systems should be explored.

Brassinosteroids are involved in response of cucumber (Cucumis sativus) to iron deficiency

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Brassinosteroids (BR) are a class of plant polyhydroxysteroids with diverse functions in plant growth and development. However, there is little information on the role of BRs played in the response to nutrient deficiency.

METHODS

To evaluate the role of BR in the response of plants to iron (Fe) deficiency, the effect of 24-epibrassinolide (EBR) on ferric reductase (FRO) activity, acidification of the rhizosphere and Fe content in cucumber (Cucumis sativus) seedlings under Fe-deficient (1 µm FeEDTA) and Fe-sufficient (50 µm FeEDTA) conditions were investigated.

KEY RESULTS

There was a significant increase in FRO activity upon exposure of cucumber seedlings to an Fe-deficient medium, and the Fe deficiency-induced increase in FRO activity was substantially suppressed by EBR. In contrast, application of EBR to Fe-sufficient seedlings stimulated FRO activity. Ethylene production evoked by Fe deficiency was suppressed by EBR, while EBR induced ethylene production from Fe-sufficient seedlings. Fe contents in shoots were reduced by treatment with EBR, while Fe contents in roots were markedly increased under both Fe-deficient and Fe-sufficient conditions. The reductions in Fe contents of shoots were independent of chlorophyll (CHL) contents under Fe-sufficient conditions, but they were positively correlated with CHL contents under Fe-deficient conditions. At the transcriptional level, transcripts encoding FRO (CsFRO1) and Fe transporter (CsIRT1) were increased upon exposure to the Fe-deficient medium, and the increases in transcripts were reversed by EBR.

CONCLUSIONS

The results demonstrate that BRs are likely to play a negative role in regulating Fe-deficiency-induced FRO, expressions of CsFRO1 and CsIRT1, as well as Fe translocation from roots to shoots.