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Mansfield KL, Schilling M, Sanders C, Holding M, Johnson N. Arthropod-Borne Viruses of Human and Animal Importance: Overwintering in Temperate Regions of Europe during an Era of Climate Change. Microorganisms 2024; 12:1307. [PMID: 39065076 PMCID: PMC11278640 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms12071307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2024] [Revised: 06/20/2024] [Accepted: 06/22/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
The past three decades have seen an increasing number of emerging arthropod-borne viruses in temperate regions This process is ongoing, driven by human activities such as inter-continental travel, combined with the parallel emergence of invasive arthropods and an underlying change in climate that can increase the risk of virus transmission and persistence. In addition, natural events such as bird migration can introduce viruses to new regions. Despite the apparent regularity of virus emergence, arthropod-borne viruses circulating in temperate regions face the challenge of the late autumn and winter months where the arthropod vector is inactive. Viruses therefore need mechanisms to overwinter or they will fail to establish in temperate zones. Prolonged survival of arthropod-borne viruses within the environment, outside of both vertebrate host and arthropod vector, is not thought to occur and therefore is unlikely to contribute to overwintering in temperate zones. One potential mechanism is continued infection of a vertebrate host. However, infection is generally acute, with the host either dying or producing an effective immune response that rapidly clears the virus. There are few exceptions to this, although prolonged infection associated with orbiviruses such as bluetongue virus occurs in certain mammals, and viraemic vertebrate hosts therefore can, in certain circumstances, provide a route for long-term viral persistence in the absence of active vectors. Alternatively, a virus can persist in the arthropod vector as a mechanism for overwintering. However, this is entirely dependent on the ecology of the vector itself and can be influenced by changes in the climate during the winter months. This review considers the mechanisms for virus overwintering in several key arthropod vectors in temperate areas. We also consider how this will be influenced in a warming climate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen L. Mansfield
- Vector Borne Diseases, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK; (K.L.M.); (M.S.)
| | - Mirjam Schilling
- Vector Borne Diseases, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK; (K.L.M.); (M.S.)
| | | | - Maya Holding
- Virology and Pathogenesis Group, UK Health Security Agency, Porton Down, Salisbury SP4 0JG, UK;
| | - Nicholas Johnson
- Vector Borne Diseases, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK; (K.L.M.); (M.S.)
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, UK
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Wang LL, Cheng Q, Newton ND, Wolfinger MT, Morgan MS, Slonchak A, Khromykh AA, Cheng TY, Parry RH. Xinyang flavivirus, from Haemaphysalis flava ticks in Henan Province, China, defines a basal, likely tick-only Orthoflavivirus clade. J Gen Virol 2024; 105:001991. [PMID: 38809251 PMCID: PMC11165663 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.001991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2024] [Accepted: 05/08/2024] [Indexed: 05/30/2024] Open
Abstract
Tick-borne orthoflaviviruses (TBFs) are classified into three conventional groups based on genetics and ecology: mammalian, seabird and probable-TBF group. Recently, a fourth basal group has been identified in Rhipicephalus ticks from Africa: Mpulungu flavivirus (MPFV) in Zambia and Ngoye virus (NGOV) in Senegal. Despite attempts, isolating these viruses in vertebrate and invertebrate cell lines or intracerebral injection of newborn mice with virus-containing homogenates has remained unsuccessful. In this study, we report the discovery of Xinyang flavivirus (XiFV) in Haemaphysalis flava ticks from Xìnyáng, Henan Province, China. Phylogenetic analysis shows that XiFV was most closely related to MPFV and NGOV, marking the first identification of this tick orthoflavivirus group in Asia. We developed a reverse transcriptase quantitative PCR assay to screen wild-collected ticks and egg clutches, with absolute infection rates of 20.75 % in adult females and 15.19 % in egg clutches, suggesting that XiFV could be potentially spread through transovarial transmission. To examine potential host range, dinucleotide composition analyses revealed that XiFV, MPFV and NGOV share a closer composition to classical insect-specific orthoflaviviruses than to vertebrate-infecting TBFs, suggesting that XiFV could be a tick-only orthoflavivirus. Additionally, both XiFV and MPFV lack a furin cleavage site in the prM protein, unlike other TBFs, suggesting these viruses might exist towards a biased immature particle state. To examine this, chimeric Binjari virus with XIFV-prME (bXiFV) was generated, purified and analysed by SDS-PAGE and negative-stain transmission electron microscopy, suggesting prototypical orthoflavivirus size (~50 nm) and bias towards uncleaved prM. In silico structural analyses of the 3'-untranslated regions show that XiFV forms up to five pseudo-knot-containing stem-loops and a prototypical orthoflavivirus dumbbell element, suggesting the potential for multiple exoribonuclease-resistant RNA structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lan-Lan Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, Hunan Province, PR China
| | - Qia Cheng
- Children’s Medical Center, Hunan Provincial People’s Hospital, Changsha, PR China
| | - Natalee D. Newton
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Michael T. Wolfinger
- Department of Theoretical Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Research Group Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, Faculty of Computer Science, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Bioinformatics Group, Department of Computer Science, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- RNA Forecast e.U., Vienna, Austria
| | - Mahali S. Morgan
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Andrii Slonchak
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Alexander A. Khromykh
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- GVN Center of Excellence, Australian Infectious Diseases Research Centre, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Tian-Yin Cheng
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, Hunan Province, PR China
| | - Rhys H. Parry
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
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Hungwe FTT, Laycock KM, Ntereke TD, Mabaka R, Paganotti GM. A historical perspective on arboviruses of public health interest in Southern Africa. Pathog Glob Health 2024; 118:131-159. [PMID: 38082563 PMCID: PMC11141323 DOI: 10.1080/20477724.2023.2290375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2024] Open
Abstract
Arboviruses are an existing and expanding threat globally, with the potential for causing devastating health and socioeconomic impacts. Mitigating this threat necessitates a One Health approach that integrates vector surveillance, rapid disease detection, and innovative prevention and control measures. In Southern Africa, limited data on the epidemiology of arboviruses, their vectors, and their hosts prevent an effective response. We reviewed the current knowledge on arboviruses in Southern Africa and identified opportunities for further research. A literature search was conducted to identify studies published on arboviruses in 10 tropical and temperate countries of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) from 1900 onward. We identified 280 studies, half (51.1%) originating from South Africa, that described 31 arboviral species, their vectors, and their clinical effects on hosts reported in the region. Arboviral research flourished in the SADC in the mid-20th century but then declined, before reemerging in the last two decades. Recent research consists largely of case reports describing outbreaks. Historical vector surveillance and serosurveys from the mid-20th century suggest that arboviruses are plentiful across Southern Africa, but large gaps remain in the current understanding of arboviral distribution, transmission dynamics, and public health impact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faith T. T. Hungwe
- School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Katherine M. Laycock
- The Ryan White Center for Pediatric Infectious Disease and Global Health, Department of Pediatrics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | | | - Rorisang Mabaka
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Botswana, Gaborone, Botswana
| | - Giacomo M. Paganotti
- Botswana-University of Pennsylvania Partnership, Gaborone, Botswana
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Botswana, Gaborone, Botswana
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Belova OA, Polienko AE, Averianova AD, Karganova GG. Hybrids of Ixodes ricinus and Ixodes persulcatus ticks effectively acquire and transmit tick-borne encephalitis virus. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2023; 13:1104484. [PMID: 36743302 PMCID: PMC9895388 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2023.1104484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2022] [Accepted: 01/02/2023] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Ixodes rici nus and Ixodes persulcatus ticks are the main vectors of tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV), which has three main subtypes connected with certain tick species: the European subtype, associated with I. ricinus, and the Siberian and Far-Eastern subtypes, associated with I. persulcatus. Distribution ranges of these species overlap and form large sympatric areas in the East European Plain and Baltic countries. It has previously been shown that crossing of I. ricinus and I. persulcatus is possible, with the appearance of sterile hybrids. Hybridization of ticks can affect not only the spread of ticks but also the properties of natural foci of arbovirus infections, in particular TBEV. In the present study, we analyzed the effectiveness of virus transmission from infected mice to larvae and nymphs and trans-stadial transmission (from larvae to nymph and adult) in I. ricinus, I. persulcatus, and hybrids. For this purpose, we bred a hybrid generation from the crossing of I. persulcatus females and I. ricinus males, and we used the Siberian and European subtypes of TBEV. We showed that after feeding on infected mice, virus prevalence in engorged ticks decreased over time, and after molting, the opposite was true. In hybrids we observed the highest acquisition effectiveness and RNA copy numbers during Siberian TBEV subtype transmission. The efficiency of trans-stadial transmission of both TBEV subtypes was similar in hybrids and parental species. After the second trans-stadial TBEV transmission, a significant increase in ticks' infection rates was observed only in specific subtype-tick combination. Our data demonstrate the possible features of TBEV circulation in the I. ricinus and I. persulcatus sympatry area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oxana A. Belova
- Laboratory of Biology of arboviruses, Federal State Autonomous Scientific Institution "Chumakov Federal Scientific Center for Research and Development of Immune-and- Biological Products of Russian Academy of Sciences" (Institute of Poliomyelitis), Moscow, Russia,*Correspondence: Oxana A. Belova,
| | - Alexandra E. Polienko
- Laboratory of Biology of arboviruses, Federal State Autonomous Scientific Institution "Chumakov Federal Scientific Center for Research and Development of Immune-and- Biological Products of Russian Academy of Sciences" (Institute of Poliomyelitis), Moscow, Russia
| | - Anastasia D. Averianova
- Laboratory of Biology of arboviruses, Federal State Autonomous Scientific Institution "Chumakov Federal Scientific Center for Research and Development of Immune-and- Biological Products of Russian Academy of Sciences" (Institute of Poliomyelitis), Moscow, Russia
| | - Galina G. Karganova
- Laboratory of Biology of arboviruses, Federal State Autonomous Scientific Institution "Chumakov Federal Scientific Center for Research and Development of Immune-and- Biological Products of Russian Academy of Sciences" (Institute of Poliomyelitis), Moscow, Russia,Department of Virology, Biological Faculty, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
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Hoffman T, Olsen B, Lundkvist Å. The Biological and Ecological Features of Northbound Migratory Birds, Ticks, and Tick-Borne Microorganisms in the African-Western Palearctic. Microorganisms 2023; 11:microorganisms11010158. [PMID: 36677450 PMCID: PMC9866947 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11010158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2022] [Revised: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 01/03/2023] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Identifying the species that act as hosts, vectors, and vehicles of vector-borne pathogens is vital for revealing the transmission cycles, dispersal mechanisms, and establishment of vector-borne pathogens in nature. Ticks are common vectors for pathogens causing human and animal diseases, and they transmit a greater variety of pathogenic agents than any other arthropod vector group. Ticks depend on the movements by their vertebrate hosts for their dispersal, and tick species with long feeding periods are more likely to be transported over long distances. Wild birds are commonly parasitized by ticks, and their migration patterns enable the long-distance range expansion of ticks. The African-Palearctic migration system is one of the world's largest migrations systems. African-Western Palearctic birds create natural links between the African, European, and Asian continents when they migrate biannually between breeding grounds in the Palearctic and wintering grounds in Africa and thereby connect different biomes. Climate is an important geographical determinant of ticks, and with global warming, the distribution range and abundance of ticks in the Western Palearctic may increase. The introduction of exotic ticks and their microorganisms into the Western Palearctic via avian vehicles might therefore pose a greater risk for the public and animal health in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tove Hoffman
- Zoonosis Science Center, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Uppsala University, 751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Björn Olsen
- Zoonosis Science Center, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Uppsala University, 751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
- Zoonosis Science Center, Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, 751 85 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Åke Lundkvist
- Zoonosis Science Center, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Uppsala University, 751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
- Correspondence:
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Yang M, Ma Y, Jiang Q, Song M, Kang H, Liu J, Qu L. Isolation, identification and pathogenic characteristics of tick-derived parainfluenza virus 5 in northeast China. Transbound Emerg Dis 2022; 69:3300-3316. [PMID: 35964328 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.14681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2022] [Revised: 07/19/2022] [Accepted: 08/04/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The number of parainfluenza virus 5 (PIV5) infection cases has increased worldwide over the past six decades; however, factors underlying this increase remain unclear. PIV5 has been emerging or re-emerging in humans and animal species. To date, no information is yet available regarding PIV5 infection in arthropod ticks. Here, we successfully isolated tick-derived PIV5 from the Ixodes persulcatus species designated as HLJ/Tick/2019 in Heilongjiang, China. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the tick-derived PIV5 is closely related to subclade 2.2.6, which has become the dominant subtype prevalent in dogs, pigs and wildlife across China. Further experiments to understand the importance of this virus as an infectious vector revealed that a ferret animal model experimentally infected with Tick/HLJ/2019 via the oronasal and ocular inoculation routes developed moderate respiratory distress with pneumonia and neurologic tissue damage from inflammation for the first time. Further surveillance of PIV5 in vectors of viral transmission is necessary to enhance our knowledge of its ecology in reservoirs and facilitate the control of re-emerging diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingfa Yang
- Division of Zoonosis of Natural Foci, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Yunyun Ma
- Division of Zoonosis of Natural Foci, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Qian Jiang
- Division of Zoonosis of Natural Foci, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Mingxin Song
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Hongtao Kang
- Division of Zoonosis of Natural Foci, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Jiasen Liu
- Division of Zoonosis of Natural Foci, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Liandong Qu
- Division of Zoonosis of Natural Foci, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
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7
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Da Rold G, Obber F, Monne I, Milani A, Ravagnan S, Toniolo F, Sgubin S, Zamperin G, Foiani G, Vascellari M, Drzewniokova P, Castellan M, De Benedictis P, Citterio CV. Clinical Tick-Borne Encephalitis in a Roe Deer (Capreolus capreolus L.). Viruses 2022; 14:v14020300. [PMID: 35215891 PMCID: PMC8875940 DOI: 10.3390/v14020300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2021] [Revised: 01/26/2022] [Accepted: 01/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) is the causative agent of tick-borne encephalitis (TBE), a severe zoonosis occurring in the Palearctic region mainly transmitted through Ixodes ticks. In Italy, TBEV is restricted to the north-eastern part of the country. This report describes for the first time a case of clinical TBE in a roe deer (Capreolus capreolus L.). The case occurred in the Belluno province, Veneto region, an area endemic for TBEV. The affected roe deer showed ataxia, staggering movements, muscle tremors, wide-base stance of the front limbs, repetitive movements of the head, persistent teeth grinding, hypersalivation and prolonged recumbency. An autopsy revealed no significant lesions to explain the neurological signs. TBEV RNA was detected in the brain by real-time RT-PCR, and the nearly complete viral genome (10,897 nucleotides) was sequenced. Phylogenetic analysis of the gene encoding the envelope protein revealed a close relationship to TBEV of the European subtype, and 100% similarity with a partial sequence (520 nucleotides) of a TBEV found in ticks in the bordering Trento province. The histological examination of the midbrain revealed lymphohistiocytic encephalitis, satellitosis and microgliosis, consistent with a viral etiology. Other viral etiologies were ruled out by metagenomic analysis of the brain. This report underlines, for the first time, the occurrence of clinical encephalitic manifestations due to TBEV in a roe deer, suggesting that this pathogen should be included in the frame of differential diagnoses in roe deer with neurologic disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graziana Da Rold
- U.O. Ecopathology SCT2-Belluno, Istituto Zoprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie (IZSVe), Via Cappellari 44/A, 32100 Belluno, Italy; (F.O.); (C.V.C.)
- OIE Collaborating Centre for Diseases at the Animal/Human Interface, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie (IZSVe), Viale dell’Università 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy; (I.M.); (A.M.); (S.R.); (F.T.); (S.S.); (G.Z.); (G.F.); (M.V.); (P.D.); (M.C.); (P.D.B.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Federica Obber
- U.O. Ecopathology SCT2-Belluno, Istituto Zoprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie (IZSVe), Via Cappellari 44/A, 32100 Belluno, Italy; (F.O.); (C.V.C.)
- OIE Collaborating Centre for Diseases at the Animal/Human Interface, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie (IZSVe), Viale dell’Università 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy; (I.M.); (A.M.); (S.R.); (F.T.); (S.S.); (G.Z.); (G.F.); (M.V.); (P.D.); (M.C.); (P.D.B.)
| | - Isabella Monne
- OIE Collaborating Centre for Diseases at the Animal/Human Interface, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie (IZSVe), Viale dell’Università 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy; (I.M.); (A.M.); (S.R.); (F.T.); (S.S.); (G.Z.); (G.F.); (M.V.); (P.D.); (M.C.); (P.D.B.)
- Laboratory for Viral Genomics and Trascriptomics, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie (IZSVe), Viale dell’Università 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy
| | - Adelaide Milani
- OIE Collaborating Centre for Diseases at the Animal/Human Interface, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie (IZSVe), Viale dell’Università 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy; (I.M.); (A.M.); (S.R.); (F.T.); (S.S.); (G.Z.); (G.F.); (M.V.); (P.D.); (M.C.); (P.D.B.)
- Laboratory for Viral Genomics and Trascriptomics, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie (IZSVe), Viale dell’Università 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy
| | - Silvia Ravagnan
- OIE Collaborating Centre for Diseases at the Animal/Human Interface, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie (IZSVe), Viale dell’Università 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy; (I.M.); (A.M.); (S.R.); (F.T.); (S.S.); (G.Z.); (G.F.); (M.V.); (P.D.); (M.C.); (P.D.B.)
- Laboratory of Parasitology Micology and Sanitary Enthomology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell’Università 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy
| | - Federica Toniolo
- OIE Collaborating Centre for Diseases at the Animal/Human Interface, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie (IZSVe), Viale dell’Università 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy; (I.M.); (A.M.); (S.R.); (F.T.); (S.S.); (G.Z.); (G.F.); (M.V.); (P.D.); (M.C.); (P.D.B.)
- Laboratory of Parasitology Micology and Sanitary Enthomology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell’Università 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy
| | - Sofia Sgubin
- OIE Collaborating Centre for Diseases at the Animal/Human Interface, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie (IZSVe), Viale dell’Università 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy; (I.M.); (A.M.); (S.R.); (F.T.); (S.S.); (G.Z.); (G.F.); (M.V.); (P.D.); (M.C.); (P.D.B.)
- Laboratory of Parasitology Micology and Sanitary Enthomology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell’Università 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy
| | - Gianpiero Zamperin
- OIE Collaborating Centre for Diseases at the Animal/Human Interface, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie (IZSVe), Viale dell’Università 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy; (I.M.); (A.M.); (S.R.); (F.T.); (S.S.); (G.Z.); (G.F.); (M.V.); (P.D.); (M.C.); (P.D.B.)
- Laboratory for Viral Genomics and Trascriptomics, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie (IZSVe), Viale dell’Università 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy
| | - Greta Foiani
- OIE Collaborating Centre for Diseases at the Animal/Human Interface, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie (IZSVe), Viale dell’Università 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy; (I.M.); (A.M.); (S.R.); (F.T.); (S.S.); (G.Z.); (G.F.); (M.V.); (P.D.); (M.C.); (P.D.B.)
- Histopathology Laboratory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell’Universita 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy
| | - Marta Vascellari
- OIE Collaborating Centre for Diseases at the Animal/Human Interface, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie (IZSVe), Viale dell’Università 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy; (I.M.); (A.M.); (S.R.); (F.T.); (S.S.); (G.Z.); (G.F.); (M.V.); (P.D.); (M.C.); (P.D.B.)
- Histopathology Laboratory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell’Universita 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy
| | - Petra Drzewniokova
- OIE Collaborating Centre for Diseases at the Animal/Human Interface, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie (IZSVe), Viale dell’Università 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy; (I.M.); (A.M.); (S.R.); (F.T.); (S.S.); (G.Z.); (G.F.); (M.V.); (P.D.); (M.C.); (P.D.B.)
- Laboratory for Viral Emerging Zoonoses, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell’Università 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy
| | - Martina Castellan
- OIE Collaborating Centre for Diseases at the Animal/Human Interface, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie (IZSVe), Viale dell’Università 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy; (I.M.); (A.M.); (S.R.); (F.T.); (S.S.); (G.Z.); (G.F.); (M.V.); (P.D.); (M.C.); (P.D.B.)
- Laboratory for Viral Emerging Zoonoses, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell’Università 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy
| | - Paola De Benedictis
- OIE Collaborating Centre for Diseases at the Animal/Human Interface, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie (IZSVe), Viale dell’Università 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy; (I.M.); (A.M.); (S.R.); (F.T.); (S.S.); (G.Z.); (G.F.); (M.V.); (P.D.); (M.C.); (P.D.B.)
- Laboratory for Viral Emerging Zoonoses, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell’Università 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy
| | - Carlo Vittorio Citterio
- U.O. Ecopathology SCT2-Belluno, Istituto Zoprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie (IZSVe), Via Cappellari 44/A, 32100 Belluno, Italy; (F.O.); (C.V.C.)
- OIE Collaborating Centre for Diseases at the Animal/Human Interface, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie (IZSVe), Viale dell’Università 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy; (I.M.); (A.M.); (S.R.); (F.T.); (S.S.); (G.Z.); (G.F.); (M.V.); (P.D.); (M.C.); (P.D.B.)
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8
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Conze TM, Bagó Z, Revilla-Fernández S, Schlegel J, Goehring LS, Matiasek K. Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus (TBEV) Infection in Two Horses. Viruses 2021; 13:1775. [PMID: 34578356 PMCID: PMC8472121 DOI: 10.3390/v13091775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2021] [Revised: 08/30/2021] [Accepted: 09/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
A final diagnosis in a horse with clinical signs of encephalopathy can be challenging despite the use of extensive diagnostics. Clinical signs are often not pathognomonic and need to be interpreted in combination with (specific) laboratory results and epidemiological data of the geographical region of the origin of the case(s). Here we describe the diagnostic pathway of tick-borne encephalitis virus infection in two horses using established molecular diagnostic methods and a novel in situ hybridization technique to differentiate between regionally important/emerging diseases for central Europe: (i) hepatoencephalopathy, (ii) Borna disease virus, and (iii) West Nile virus infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theresa Maria Conze
- Equine Medicine and Reproduction, Centre for Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians University Munich, Veterinärstraße 13, 80539 Munich, Germany;
| | - Zoltán Bagó
- Institute for Veterinary Disease Control Mödling, Austrian Agency for Health and Food Safety GmbH (AGES), IVET, 2340 Mödling, Austria; (Z.B.); (S.R.-F.)
| | - Sandra Revilla-Fernández
- Institute for Veterinary Disease Control Mödling, Austrian Agency for Health and Food Safety GmbH (AGES), IVET, 2340 Mödling, Austria; (Z.B.); (S.R.-F.)
| | - Jürgen Schlegel
- Department of Neuropathology, Institute of Pathology, School of Medicine, Technical University Munich, Trogerstraße 18, 81675 Munich, Germany;
| | - Lutz S. Goehring
- Equine Medicine and Reproduction, Centre for Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians University Munich, Veterinärstraße 13, 80539 Munich, Germany;
| | - Kaspar Matiasek
- Section of Clinical and Comparative Neuropathology, Centre for Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians University, Veterinärstraße 13, 80539 Munich, Germany
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9
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El Hamiani Khatat S, Daminet S, Duchateau L, Elhachimi L, Kachani M, Sahibi H. Epidemiological and Clinicopathological Features of Anaplasma phagocytophilum Infection in Dogs: A Systematic Review. Front Vet Sci 2021; 8:686644. [PMID: 34250067 PMCID: PMC8260688 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.686644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Anaplasma phagocytophilum is a worldwide emerging zoonotic tick-borne pathogen transmitted by Ixodid ticks and naturally maintained in complex and incompletely assessed enzootic cycles. Several studies have demonstrated an extensive genetic variability with variable host tropisms and pathogenicity. However, the relationship between genetic diversity and modified pathogenicity is not yet understood. Because of their proximity to humans, dogs are potential sentinels for the transmission of vector-borne pathogens. Furthermore, the strong molecular similarity between human and canine isolates of A. phagocytophilum in Europe and the USA and the positive association in the distribution of human and canine cases in the USA emphasizes the epidemiological role of dogs. Anaplasma phagocytophilum infects and survives within neutrophils by disregulating neutrophil functions and evading specific immune responses. Moreover, the complex interaction between the bacterium and the infected host immune system contribute to induce inflammatory injuries. Canine granulocytic anaplasmosis is an acute febrile illness characterized by lethargy, inappetence, weight loss and musculoskeletal pain. Hematological and biochemistry profile modifications associated with this disease are unspecific and include thrombocytopenia, anemia, morulae within neutrophils and increased liver enzymes activity. Coinfections with other tick-borne pathogens (TBPs) may occur, especially with Borrelia burgdorferi, complicating the clinical presentation, diagnosis and response to treatment. Although clinical studies have been published in dogs, it remains unclear if several clinical signs and clinicopathological abnormalities can be related to this infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah El Hamiani Khatat
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Reproduction, Hassan II Institute of Agronomy and Veterinary Medicine, Rabat, Morocco
| | - Sylvie Daminet
- Department of Companion Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Luc Duchateau
- Department of Comparative Physiology and Biometrics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Latifa Elhachimi
- Department of Pathology and Veterinary Public Health, Unit of Parasitology, Hassan II Institute of Agronomy and Veterinary Medicine, Rabat, Morocco
| | - Malika Kachani
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA, United States
| | - Hamid Sahibi
- Department of Pathology and Veterinary Public Health, Unit of Parasitology, Hassan II Institute of Agronomy and Veterinary Medicine, Rabat, Morocco
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10
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Chandra S, Harvey E, Emery D, Holmes EC, Šlapeta J. Unbiased Characterization of the Microbiome and Virome of Questing Ticks. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:627327. [PMID: 34054743 PMCID: PMC8153229 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.627327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2020] [Accepted: 04/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Due to their vector capacity, ticks are ectoparasites of medical and veterinary significance. Modern sequencing tools have facilitated tick-associated microbiota studies, but these have largely focused on bacterial pathogens and symbionts. By combining 16S rRNA gene sequencing with total RNA-sequencing methods, we aimed to determine the complete microbiome and virome of questing, female Ixodes holocyclus recovered from coastal, north-eastern New South Wales (NSW), Australia. We present, for the first time, a robust and unbiased method for the identification of novel microbes in ticks that enabled us to identify bacteria, viruses, fungi and eukaryotic pathogens. The dominant bacterial endosymbionts were Candidatus Midichloria sp. Ixholo1 and Candidatus Midichloria sp. Ixholo2. Candidatus Neoehrlichia australis and Candidatus Neoehrlichia arcana were also recovered, confirming that these bacteria encompass I. holocyclus’ core microbiota. In addition, seven virus species were detected—four previously identified in I. holocyclus and three novel species. Notably, one of the four previously identified virus species has pathogenic potential based on its phylogenetic relationship to other tick-associated pathogens. No known pathogenic eukaryotes or fungi were identified. This study has revealed the microbiome and virome of female I. holocyclus from the environment in north-eastern NSW. We propose that future tick microbiome and virome studies utilize equivalent methods to provide an improved representation of the microbial diversity in ticks globally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shona Chandra
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Erin Harvey
- Marie Bashir Institute for Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity, School of Life and Environmental Sciences and School of Medical Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - David Emery
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Edward C Holmes
- Marie Bashir Institute for Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity, School of Life and Environmental Sciences and School of Medical Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Jan Šlapeta
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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11
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Blomqvist G, Näslund K, Svensson L, Beck C, Valarcher JF. Mapping geographical areas at risk for tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) by analysing bulk tank milk from Swedish dairy cattle herds for the presence of TBE virus-specific antibodies. Acta Vet Scand 2021; 63:16. [PMID: 33827636 PMCID: PMC8028798 DOI: 10.1186/s13028-021-00580-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2020] [Accepted: 03/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The vector-borne human viral zoonosis tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is of growing concern in Sweden. The area where TBE is considered endemic has expanded, with an increasing geographical distribution of Ixodes ricinus as the tick vector and a rising number of reported TBE cases in humans. Efforts to map TBE risk areas have been carried out by sentinel monitoring, mainly based on individual sampling and analysis of wild and domestic animals, as well as ticks, for tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV). However, the interpretation of the geographical distribution has been hampered by the patchy and focal nature of TBEV occurrence. This study presents TBEV surveillance data based on antibody analysis of bulk tank milk collected from dairy herds located throughout Sweden before (May) and after (November) the vector season. A commercial TBEV antibody ELISA was modified and evaluated for use in this study. Results The initial comparative TBEV antibody analysis revealed a good correlation between milk and serum antibody levels from individually sampled cows. Also, the TBEV-antibody levels for the mean-herd serum showed good comparability with TBEV antibody levels from bulk tank milk, thus indicating good predictability of seroprevalence when analysing bulk tank milk from a herd. Analyses of bulk tank milk samples collected from 616 herds in May and 560 herds in November showed a geographical distribution of TBEV seropositive herds that was largely consistent with reported human TBE cases. A few TBEV-reactive herds were also found outside known locations of human TBE cases. Conclusion Serological examination of bulk tank milk from dairy cattle herds may be a useful sentinel surveillance method to identify geographical presence of TBEV. In contrast to individual sampling this method allows a large number of animals to be monitored. TBEV seropositive herds were mainly found in coastal areas of southern Sweden similar to human TBE cases. However, some antibody-reactive herds were found outside known TBE areas at the time of the study.
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12
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An Epidemiological Survey Regarding Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases among Livestock Owners in Punjab, Pakistan: A One Health Context. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10030361. [PMID: 33803649 PMCID: PMC8003106 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10030361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2021] [Revised: 03/14/2021] [Accepted: 03/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent global changes have led to an increase in the spread of ticks and tick-borne diseases (TBDs) affecting domestic ruminants and humans, with an annual loss of US $13.9–$18.7 billion. The current study determined the perception and practices of livestock farmers regarding tick infestation. A total of 112 livestock farms were surveyed in Punjab, Pakistan, among which animals from 42 (37.5%) farms were infested with ticks. Only 28.6% (n = 32) of the dairy farmers were consulting veterinarians for ticks control, while 86.7% (n = 97) of the respondents did not consider biosecurity measures in the control of tick transmission. Most of the respondents, 71.4% (n = 80), did not consider manual tick removal from their animals (i.e., by hand, followed by physically crushing) as a risky practice for spreading zoonotic diseases. Improper disposal of bottles of acaricides in the farm drainage was also observed, putting the environment and aquatic life at risk. These wrong practices may contribute to high disease burdens and economic losses, increasing the possibility of transmission of zoonotic TBDs and pollution of the environment. Therefore, an integrated One Health approach is required for the control of TBDs through environmentally friendly approaches.
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13
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Paulsen KM, Lamsal A, Bastakoti S, Pettersson JHO, Pedersen BN, Stiasny K, Haglund M, Smura T, Vapalahti O, Vikse R, Alfsnes K, Andreassen ÅK. High-throughput sequencing of two European strains of tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV), Hochosterwitz and 1993/783. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2020; 12:101557. [PMID: 33080519 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2020.101557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2020] [Revised: 08/28/2020] [Accepted: 09/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) is a medically important arbovirus, widespread in Europe and Asia. The virus is primarily transmitted to humans and animals by bites from ticks and, in rare cases, by consumption of unpasteurized dairy products. The aim of this study was to sequence and characterize two TBEV strains with amplicon sequencing by designing overlapping primers. The amplicon sequencing, via Illumina MiSeq, covering nearly the entire TBEV genome, was successful: We retrieved and characterized the complete polyprotein sequence of two TBEV strains, Hochosterwitz and 1993/783 from Austria and Sweden, respectively. In this study the previous phylogenetic analysis of both strains was confirmed to be of the European subtypes of TBEV (TBEV-Eu) by whole genome sequencing. The Hochosterwitz strain clustered with the two strains KrM 93 and KrM 213 from South Korea, and the 1993/783 strain clustered together with the NL/UH strain from the Netherlands. Our study confirms the suitability and rapidness of the high-throughput sequencing method used to produce complete TBEV genomes from TBEV samples of high viral load giving high-molecular-weight cDNA with large overlapping amplicons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrine M Paulsen
- Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Division for Infection Control and Environmental Health, Department of Virology, PO-Box 222 Skøyen, NO-0213, Oslo, Norway
| | - Alaka Lamsal
- Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Division for Infection Control and Environmental Health, Department of Virology, PO-Box 222 Skøyen, NO-0213, Oslo, Norway; University of South-Eastern Norway, Department of Natural Science and Environmental Health, Gullbringvegen 36, NO-3800, Bø, Norway
| | - Srijana Bastakoti
- Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Division for Infection Control and Environmental Health, Department of Virology, PO-Box 222 Skøyen, NO-0213, Oslo, Norway
| | - John H-O Pettersson
- Uppsala University, Zoonosis Science Center, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Uppsala, Sweden; The University of Sydney, Marie Bashir Institute for Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity, Charles Perkins Centre, School of Life and Environmental Sciences and Sydney Medical School, Sydney, Australia
| | - Benedikte N Pedersen
- University of South-Eastern Norway, Department of Natural Science and Environmental Health, Gullbringvegen 36, NO-3800, Bø, Norway
| | - Karin Stiasny
- Medical University of Vienna, Center for Virology, Kinderspitalgasse 15, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Mats Haglund
- Kalmar County Hospital, Department of Infectious Diseases, SE-391 85, Kalmar, Sweden
| | - Teemu Smura
- University of Helsinki, Department of Virology, Medicum, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Olli Vapalahti
- University of Helsinki, Department of Virology, Medicum, Helsinki, Finland; University of Helsinki, Department of Veterinary Biosciences, Helsinki, Finland; University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Department of Virology and Immunology, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Rose Vikse
- Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Division for Infection Control and Environmental Health, Department of Virology, PO-Box 222 Skøyen, NO-0213, Oslo, Norway
| | - Kristian Alfsnes
- Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Division for Infection Control and Environmental Health, Department of Bacteriology, PO-Box 222 Skøyen, NO-0213, Oslo, Norway
| | - Åshild K Andreassen
- Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Division for Infection Control and Environmental Health, Department of Virology, PO-Box 222 Skøyen, NO-0213, Oslo, Norway; University of South-Eastern Norway, Department of Natural Science and Environmental Health, Gullbringvegen 36, NO-3800, Bø, Norway.
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14
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Serretiello E, Astorri R, Chianese A, Stelitano D, Zannella C, Folliero V, Santella B, Galdiero M, Franci G, Galdiero M. The emerging tick-borne Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever virus: A narrative review. Travel Med Infect Dis 2020; 37:101871. [PMID: 32891725 DOI: 10.1016/j.tmaid.2020.101871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2019] [Revised: 08/25/2020] [Accepted: 08/26/2020] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Crimean-Congo Haemorrhagic Fever (CCHF) is an increasingly relevant viral zoonosis caused by the negative-sense single-stranded (ss) RNA Crimean-Congo Haemorrhagic Fever Orthonairovirus (CCHFV) (Nairoviridae family, Bunyavirales order). The viral genome is divided into three segments (L-M-S) of distinct size and functions. The infection is generally mediated by a tick vector, in particular belonging to the Hyalomma genus, and the transmission follows a tick-vertebrate-tick ecologic cycle, with asymptomatic infected animals functioning as reservoirs and amplifiers for CCHFV. Human hosts could be infected primarily through infected ticks or by contact with infected hosts or their body fluids and tissues, also in a nosocomial way and in occupational contexts. Infected symptomatic patients generally manifest a nonspecific illness, which progresses across four stages, with possibly lethal outcomes. Disease outbreaks show a widespread geographic diffusion and a highly variable mortality rate, dramatically peaking in untreated patients. The lack of an adequate animal model and the elevated virus biological risk (only manageable under biosafety level 4 conditions) represent strongly limiting factors for a better characterization of the disease and for the development of specific therapies and vaccines. The present review discusses updated information on CCHFV-related disease, including details about the virus (taxonomy, structure, life cycle, transmission modalities) and considering CCHF pathogenesis, epidemiology and current strategies (diagnostic, therapeutic and preventive).
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Affiliation(s)
- Enrica Serretiello
- Section of Microbiology and Virology, University Hospital Luigi Vanvitelli of Naples, Naples, Italy
| | - Roberta Astorri
- Department of Mental Health and Public Medicine, Infectious Diseases Unit, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", Naples, Italy; Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", Naples, Italy
| | - Annalisa Chianese
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", Naples, Italy
| | - Debora Stelitano
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", Naples, Italy
| | - Carla Zannella
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", Naples, Italy
| | - Veronica Folliero
- Section of Microbiology and Virology, University Hospital Luigi Vanvitelli of Naples, Naples, Italy
| | - Biagio Santella
- Section of Microbiology and Virology, University Hospital Luigi Vanvitelli of Naples, Naples, Italy
| | - Marilena Galdiero
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", Naples, Italy
| | - Gianluigi Franci
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", Naples, Italy; Department of Medicine, Surgery and Dentistry "Scuola Medica Salernitana", University of Salerno, Baronissi (SA), Italy.
| | - Massimiliano Galdiero
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", Naples, Italy.
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15
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Helmová R, Hönig V, Tykalová H, Palus M, Bell-Sakyi L, Grubhoffer L. Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus Adaptation in Different Host Environments and Existence of Quasispecies. Viruses 2020; 12:v12080902. [PMID: 32824843 PMCID: PMC7472235 DOI: 10.3390/v12080902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2020] [Revised: 08/10/2020] [Accepted: 08/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
A highly virulent strain (Hypr) of tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) was serially subcultured in the mammalian porcine kidney stable (PS) and Ixodes ricinus tick (IRE/CTVM19) cell lines, producing three viral variants. These variants exhibited distinct plaque sizes and virulence in a mouse model. Comparing the full-genome sequences of all variants, several nucleotide changes were identified in different genomic regions. Furthermore, different sequential variants were revealed to co-exist within one sample as quasispecies. Interestingly, the above-mentioned nucleotide changes found within the whole genome sequences of the new variants were present alongside the nucleotide sequence of the parental strain, which was represented as a minority quasispecies. These observations further imply that TBEV exists as a heterogeneous population that contains virus variants pre-adapted to reproduction in different environments, probably enabling virus survival in ticks and mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renata Helmová
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, 37005 České Budějovice, Czech Republic; (R.H.); (H.T.); (L.G.)
| | - Václav Hönig
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, 37005 České Budějovice, Czech Republic; (R.H.); (H.T.); (L.G.)
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, 370 05 České Budějovice, Czech Republic;
- Department of Virology, Veterinary Research Institute, 62100 Brno, Czech Republic
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +420-387-775-463
| | - Hana Tykalová
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, 37005 České Budějovice, Czech Republic; (R.H.); (H.T.); (L.G.)
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, 370 05 České Budějovice, Czech Republic;
| | - Martin Palus
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, 370 05 České Budějovice, Czech Republic;
- Department of Virology, Veterinary Research Institute, 62100 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Lesley Bell-Sakyi
- Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L3 5RF, UK;
| | - Libor Grubhoffer
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, 37005 České Budějovice, Czech Republic; (R.H.); (H.T.); (L.G.)
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, 370 05 České Budějovice, Czech Republic;
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16
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Pettersson JHO, Ellström P, Ling J, Nilsson I, Bergström S, González-Acuña D, Olsen B, Holmes EC. Circumpolar diversification of the Ixodes uriae tick virome. PLoS Pathog 2020; 16:e1008759. [PMID: 32745135 PMCID: PMC7425989 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1008759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2020] [Revised: 08/13/2020] [Accepted: 06/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Ticks (order: Ixodida) are a highly diverse and ecologically important group of ectoparasitic blood-feeding organisms. One such species, the seabird tick (Ixodes uriae), is widely distributed around the circumpolar regions of the northern and southern hemispheres. It has been suggested that Ix. uriae spread from the southern to the northern circumpolar region millions of years ago and has remained isolated in these regions ever since. Such a profound biographic subdivision provides a unique opportunity to determine whether viruses associated with ticks exhibit the same evolutionary patterns as their hosts. To test this, we collected Ix. uriae specimens near a Gentoo penguin (Pygoscelis papua) colony at Neko harbour, Antarctica, and from migratory birds—the Razorbill (Alca torda) and the Common murre (Uria aalge)—on Bonden island, northern Sweden. Through meta-transcriptomic next-generation sequencing we identified 16 RNA viruses, seven of which were novel. Notably, we detected the same species, Ronne virus, and two closely related species, Bonden virus and Piguzov virus, in both hemispheres indicating that there have been at least two cross-circumpolar dispersal events. Similarly, we identified viruses discovered previously in other locations several decades ago, including Gadgets Gully virus, Taggert virus and Okhotskiy virus. By identifying the same or closely related viruses in geographically disjunct sampling locations we provide evidence for virus dispersal within and between the circumpolar regions. In marked contrast, our phylogenetic analysis revealed no movement of the Ix. uriae tick hosts between the same locations. Combined, these data suggest that migratory birds are responsible for the movement of viruses at both local and global scales. As host populations diverge, so may those microorganisms, including viruses, that are dependent on those hosts. To examine this key issue in host-microbe evolution we compared the co-phylogenies of the seabird tick, Ixodes uriae, and their RNA viruses sampled from the far northern and southern hemispheres. Despite the huge geographic distance between them, phylogeographic analysis reveals that the same and closely related viruses were found both within and between the northern and southern circumpolar regions, most likely reflecting transfer by virus-infected migratory birds. In contrast, genomic data suggested that the Ix. uriae populations were phylogenetically distinct between the northern and southern hemispheres. This work emphasises the importance of migratory birds and ticks as vectors and sources of virus dispersal and introduction at both the local and global scales.
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Affiliation(s)
- John H.-O. Pettersson
- Zoonosis Science Center, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
- Marie Bashir Institute for Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity, School of Life and Environmental Sciences and School of Medical Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- * E-mail: (JHOP); (ECH)
| | - Patrik Ellström
- Zoonosis Science Center, Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Jiaxin Ling
- Zoonosis Science Center, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Ingela Nilsson
- Department of Molecular Biology, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Sven Bergström
- Department of Molecular Biology, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Daniel González-Acuña
- Laboratorio de Parásitos y Enfermedades de Fauna silvestre, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad de Concepción, Chillán, Chile
| | - Björn Olsen
- Zoonosis Science Center, Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Edward C. Holmes
- Marie Bashir Institute for Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity, School of Life and Environmental Sciences and School of Medical Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- * E-mail: (JHOP); (ECH)
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17
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Zhou W, Tahir F, Wang JCY, Woodson M, Sherman MB, Karim S, Neelakanta G, Sultana H. Discovery of Exosomes From Tick Saliva and Salivary Glands Reveals Therapeutic Roles for CXCL12 and IL-8 in Wound Healing at the Tick-Human Skin Interface. Front Cell Dev Biol 2020; 8:554. [PMID: 32766239 PMCID: PMC7378379 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.00554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2019] [Accepted: 06/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Ticks secrete various anti-coagulatory, anti-vasoconstrictory, anti-inflammatory, and anti-platelet aggregation factors in their saliva at the bite site during feeding to evade host immunological surveillance and responses. For the first time, we report successful isolation of exosomes (small membrane-bound extracellular signaling vesicles) from saliva and salivary glands of partially fed or unfed ixodid ticks. Our data showed a novel role of these in vivo exosomes in the inhibition of wound healing via downregulation of C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 12 (CXCL12) and upregulation of interleukin-8 (IL-8). Cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) analysis revealed that tick saliva and salivary glands are composed of heterogeneous populations of in vivo exosomes with sizes ranging from 30 to 200 nm. Enriched amounts of tick CD63 ortholog protein and heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) were evident in these exosomes. Treatment of human skin keratinocytes (HaCaT cells) with exosomes derived from tick saliva/salivary glands or ISE6 cells dramatically delayed cell migration, wound healing, and repair process. Wound healing is a highly dynamic process with several individualized processes including secretion of cytokines. Cytokine array profiling followed by immunoblotting and quantitative-PCR analysis revealed that HaCaT cells treated with exosomes derived from tick saliva/salivary glands or ISE6 cells showed enhanced IL-8 levels and reduced CXCL12 loads. Inhibition of IL-8 or CXCL12 further delayed exosome-mediated cell migration, wound healing, and repair process, suggesting a skin barrier protection role for these chemokines at the tick bite site. In contrast, exogenous treatment of CXCL12 protein completely restored this delay and enhanced the repair process. Taken together, our study provides novel insights on how tick salivary exosomes secreted in saliva can delay wound healing at the bite site to facilitate successful blood feeding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenshuo Zhou
- Department of Biological Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, United States
| | - Faizan Tahir
- Center for Molecular and Cellular Biosciences, School of Biological, Environmental, and Earth Sciences, The University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS, United States
| | - Joseph Che-Yen Wang
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, United States.,Electron Microscopy Center, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, United States
| | - Michael Woodson
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, Galveston, TX, United States
| | - Michael B Sherman
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, Galveston, TX, United States.,Sealy Center for Structural Biology and Molecular Biophysics, University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, Galveston, TX, United States
| | - Shahid Karim
- Center for Molecular and Cellular Biosciences, School of Biological, Environmental, and Earth Sciences, The University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS, United States
| | - Girish Neelakanta
- Department of Biological Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, United States.,Center for Molecular Medicine, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, United States
| | - Hameeda Sultana
- Department of Biological Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, United States.,Center for Molecular Medicine, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, United States.,Division of Infectious Diseases and International Health, Department of Medicine, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, United States
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18
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Ličková M, Fumačová Havlíková S, Sláviková M, Slovák M, Drexler JF, Klempa B. Dermacentor reticulatus is a vector of tick-borne encephalitis virus. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2020; 11:101414. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2020.101414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2019] [Revised: 02/11/2020] [Accepted: 03/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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19
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Regmi P, Khanal S, Neelakanta G, Sultana H. Tick-Borne Flavivirus Inhibits Sphingomyelinase ( IsSMase), a Venomous Spider Ortholog to Increase Sphingomyelin Lipid Levels for Its Survival in Ixodes scapularis Ticks. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2020; 10:244. [PMID: 32656091 PMCID: PMC7325911 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.00244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2020] [Accepted: 04/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Our previous study showed that cells from medically important arthropods, such as ticks, secrete extracellular vesicles (EVs) including exosomes that mediate transmission of flavivirus RNA and proteins to the human cells. Understanding the molecular determinants and mechanism(s) of arthropod-borne flavivirus transmission via exosome biogenesis is very important. In this current study, we showed that in the presence of tick-borne Langat Virus (LGTV; a member of tick-borne encephalitis virus complex), the expression of arthropod IsSMase, a sphingomyelinase D (SMase D) that catalyzes the hydrolytic cleavage of substrates like sphingomyelin (SM) lipids, was significantly reduced in both Ixodes scapularis ticks (in vivo) and in tick cells (in vitro). The IsSMase reduced levels correlated with down-regulation of its activity upon LGTV replication in tick cells. Our data show that LGTV-mediated suppression of IsSMase allowed accumulation of SM lipid levels that supported membrane-associated viral replication and exosome biogenesis. Inhibition of viral loads and SM lipid built up upon GW4869 inhibitor treatment reversed the IsSMase levels and restored its activity. Our results suggest an important role for this spider venomous ortholog IsSMase in regulating viral replication associated with membrane-bound SM lipids in ticks. In summary, our study not only suggests a novel role for arthropod IsSMase in tick-LGTV interactions but also provides new insights into its important function in vector defense mechanism(s) against tick-borne virus infection and in anti-viral pathway(s).
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Affiliation(s)
- Pravesh Regmi
- Department of Biological Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, United States
| | - Supreet Khanal
- Department of Biological Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, United States
| | - Girish Neelakanta
- Department of Biological Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, United States
| | - Hameeda Sultana
- Department of Biological Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, United States.,Division of Infectious Diseases and International Health, Department of Medicine, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, United States
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20
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Rosà R, Tagliapietra V, Manica M, Arnoldi D, Hauffe HC, Rossi C, Rosso F, Henttonen H, Rizzoli A. Changes in host densities and co-feeding pattern efficiently predict tick-borne encephalitis hazard in an endemic focus in northern Italy. Int J Parasitol 2019; 49:779-787. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2019.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2019] [Revised: 05/03/2019] [Accepted: 05/08/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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21
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Koosha M, Vatandoost H, Karimian F, Choubdar N, Oshaghi MA. Delivery of a Genetically Marked Serratia AS1 to Medically Important Arthropods for Use in RNAi and Paratransgenic Control Strategies. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY 2019; 78:185-194. [PMID: 30460544 DOI: 10.1007/s00248-018-1289-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2018] [Accepted: 11/06/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Understanding how arthropod vectors acquire their bacteria is essential for implementation of paratransgenic and RNAi strategies using genetically modified bacteria to control vector-borne diseases. In this study, a genetically marked Serratia AS1 strain expressing the mCherry fluorescent protein (mCherry-Serratia) was used to test various acquisition routes in six arthropod vectors including Anopheles stephensi, Culex pipiens, Cx. quinquefaciatus, Cx. theileri, Phlebotomus papatasi, and Hyalomma dromedarii. Depending on the species, the bacteria were delivered to (i) mosquito larval breeding water, (ii) host skin, (iii) sugar bait, and (iv) males (paratransgenic). The arthropods were screened for the bacteria in their guts or other tissues. All the hematophagous arthropods were able to take the bacteria from the skin of their hosts while taking blood meal. The mosquitoes were able to take up the bacteria from the water at larval stages and to transfer them transstadially to adults and finally to transfer them to the water they laid eggs in. The mosquitoes were also able to acquire the bacteria from male sperm. The level of bacterial acquisition was influenced by blood feeding time and strategies (pool or vessel feeding), dipping in water and resting time of newly emerged adult mosquitoes, and the disseminated tissue/organ. Transstadial, vertical, and venereal bacterial acquisition would increase the sustainability of the modified bacteria in vector populations and decrease the need for supplementary release experiments whereas release of paratransgenic males that do not bite has fewer ethical issues. Furthermore, this study is required to determine if the modified bacteria can be introduced to arthropods in the same routes in nature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mona Koosha
- Department of Medical Entomology and Vector Control, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, P.O.Box: 14155-6446, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hassan Vatandoost
- Department of Medical Entomology and Vector Control, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, P.O.Box: 14155-6446, Tehran, Iran
| | - Fateh Karimian
- Department of Medical Entomology and Vector Control, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, P.O.Box: 14155-6446, Tehran, Iran
| | - Nayyereh Choubdar
- Department of Medical Entomology and Vector Control, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, P.O.Box: 14155-6446, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Ali Oshaghi
- Department of Medical Entomology and Vector Control, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, P.O.Box: 14155-6446, Tehran, Iran.
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22
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Rego ROM, Trentelman JJA, Anguita J, Nijhof AM, Sprong H, Klempa B, Hajdusek O, Tomás-Cortázar J, Azagi T, Strnad M, Knorr S, Sima R, Jalovecka M, Fumačová Havlíková S, Ličková M, Sláviková M, Kopacek P, Grubhoffer L, Hovius JW. Counterattacking the tick bite: towards a rational design of anti-tick vaccines targeting pathogen transmission. Parasit Vectors 2019; 12:229. [PMID: 31088506 PMCID: PMC6518728 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-019-3468-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2019] [Accepted: 04/29/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Hematophagous arthropods are responsible for the transmission of a variety of pathogens that cause disease in humans and animals. Ticks of the Ixodes ricinus complex are vectors for some of the most frequently occurring human tick-borne diseases, particularly Lyme borreliosis and tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV). The search for vaccines against these diseases is ongoing. Efforts during the last few decades have primarily focused on understanding the biology of the transmitted viruses, bacteria and protozoans, with the goal of identifying targets for intervention. Successful vaccines have been developed against TBEV and Lyme borreliosis, although the latter is no longer available for humans. More recently, the focus of intervention has shifted back to where it was initially being studied which is the vector. State of the art technologies are being used for the identification of potential vaccine candidates for anti-tick vaccines that could be used either in humans or animals. The study of the interrelationship between ticks and the pathogens they transmit, including mechanisms of acquisition, persistence and transmission have come to the fore, as this knowledge may lead to the identification of critical elements of the pathogens' life-cycle that could be targeted by vaccines. Here, we review the status of our current knowledge on the triangular relationships between ticks, the pathogens they carry and the mammalian hosts, as well as methods that are being used to identify anti-tick vaccine candidates that can prevent the transmission of tick-borne pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan O. M. Rego
- Biology Centre, Institute of Parasitology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Branišovská 31, 37005 Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | - Jos J. A. Trentelman
- Amsterdam UMC, Location AMC, Center for Experimental and Molecular Medicine, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Juan Anguita
- CIC bioGUNE, 48160 Derio, Spain
- Ikerbasque, Basque Foundation for Science, 48012 Bilbao, Spain
| | - Ard M. Nijhof
- Institute for Parasitology and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Hein Sprong
- Centre for Zoonoses and Environmental Microbiology, Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Boris Klempa
- Institute of Virology, Biomedical Research Center of the Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Ondrej Hajdusek
- Biology Centre, Institute of Parasitology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Branišovská 31, 37005 Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | | | - Tal Azagi
- Centre for Zoonoses and Environmental Microbiology, Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Martin Strnad
- Biology Centre, Institute of Parasitology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Branišovská 31, 37005 Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Branišovská 31, 37005 Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | - Sarah Knorr
- Institute for Parasitology and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Radek Sima
- Biology Centre, Institute of Parasitology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Branišovská 31, 37005 Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | - Marie Jalovecka
- Biology Centre, Institute of Parasitology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Branišovská 31, 37005 Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Branišovská 31, 37005 Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | - Sabína Fumačová Havlíková
- Institute of Virology, Biomedical Research Center of the Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Martina Ličková
- Institute of Virology, Biomedical Research Center of the Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Monika Sláviková
- Institute of Virology, Biomedical Research Center of the Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Petr Kopacek
- Biology Centre, Institute of Parasitology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Branišovská 31, 37005 Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Branišovská 31, 37005 Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | - Libor Grubhoffer
- Biology Centre, Institute of Parasitology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Branišovská 31, 37005 Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Branišovská 31, 37005 Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | - Joppe W. Hovius
- Amsterdam UMC, Location AMC, Center for Experimental and Molecular Medicine, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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23
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Hellenbrand W, Kreusch T, Böhmer MM, Wagner-Wiening C, Dobler G, Wichmann O, Altmann D. Epidemiology of Tick-Borne Encephalitis (TBE) in Germany, 2001⁻2018. Pathogens 2019; 8:E42. [PMID: 30934855 PMCID: PMC6630332 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens8020042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2019] [Revised: 03/18/2019] [Accepted: 03/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
We reviewed tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) surveillance and epidemiology in Germany, as these underlie public health recommendations, foremost vaccination. We performed descriptive analyses of notification data (2001⁻2018, n = 6063) according to region, demographics and clinical manifestations and calculated incidence trends using negative binomial regression. Risk areas were defined based on incidence in administrative districts. Most cases (89%) occurred in the federal states of Baden-Wurttemberg and Bavaria, where annual TBE incidence fluctuated markedly between 0.7⁻2.0 cases/100,000 inhabitants. A slight but significantly increasing temporal trend was observed from 2001⁻2018 (age-adjusted incidence rate ratio (IRR) 1.02 (95% confidence interval (CI): 1.01⁻1.04)), primarily driven by high case numbers in 2017⁻2018. Mean incidence was highest in 40⁻69-year-olds and in males. More males (23.7%) than females (18.0%, p = 0.02) had severe disease (encephalitis or myelitis), which increased with age, as did case-fatality (0.4% overall; 2.1% among ≥70-year-olds). Risk areas increased from 129 districts in 2007 to 161 in 2019. Expansion occurred mainly within existent southern endemic areas, with slower contiguous north-eastern and patchy north-western spread. Median vaccination coverage at school entry in risk areas in 2016⁻2017 ranged from 20%⁻41% in 4 states. Increasing TBE vaccine uptake is an urgent priority, particularly in high-incidence risk areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wiebke Hellenbrand
- Immunization Unit, Robert Koch Institute, Seestraße 10, 13353 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Teresa Kreusch
- Immunization Unit, Robert Koch Institute, Seestraße 10, 13353 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Merle M Böhmer
- Department for Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority, Veterinaerstr. 2, 85764 Oberschleissheim, Germany.
| | | | - Gerhard Dobler
- Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology, Neuherbergstrasse 11, 80937 Munich, Germany.
| | - Ole Wichmann
- Immunization Unit, Robert Koch Institute, Seestraße 10, 13353 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Doris Altmann
- Infectious Disease Data Science Unit, Robert Koch Institute, Seestraße 10, 13353 Berlin, Germany.
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24
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Abstract
The tick-borne pathogen Powassan virus is a rare cause of encephalitis in North America and the Russian Far East. The number of documented cases described since the discovery of Powassan virus in 1958 may be <150, although detection of cases has increased over the past decade. In the United States, the incidence of Powassan virus infections expanded from the estimated 1 case per year prior to 2005 to 10 cases per year during the subsequent decade. The increased detection rate may be associated with several factors, including enhanced surveillance, the availability of improved laboratory diagnostic methods, the expansion of the vector population, and, perhaps, altered human activities that lead to more exposure. Nonetheless, it remains unclear whether Powassan virus is indeed an emerging threat or if enzootic cycles in nature remain more-or-less stable with periodic fluctuations of host and vector population sizes. Despite the low disease incidence, the approximately 10% to 15% case fatality rate of neuroinvasive Powassan virus infection and the temporary or prolonged sequelae in >50% of survivors make Powassan virus a medical concern requiring the attention of public health authorities and clinicians. The medical importance of Powassan virus justifies more research on developing specific and effective treatments and prevention and control measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gábor Kemenesi
- Virological Research Group, Szentágothai Research Centre, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
- Institute of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Krisztián Bányai
- Institute for Veterinary Medical Research, Centre for Agricultural Research, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
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25
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Taank V, Zhou W, Zhuang X, Anderson JF, Pal U, Sultana H, Neelakanta G. Characterization of tick organic anion transporting polypeptides (OATPs) upon bacterial and viral infections. Parasit Vectors 2018; 11:593. [PMID: 30428915 PMCID: PMC6236954 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-018-3160-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2018] [Accepted: 10/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Ixodes scapularis organic anion transporting polypeptides (OATPs) play important roles in tick-rickettsial pathogen interactions. In this report, we characterized the role of these conserved molecules in ticks infected with either Lyme disease agent Borrelia burgdorferi or tick-borne Langat virus (LGTV), a pathogen closely related to tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV). Results Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction analysis revealed no significant changes in oatps gene expression upon infection with B. burgdorferi in unfed ticks. Synchronous infection of unfed nymphal ticks with LGTV in vitro revealed no significant changes in oatps gene expression. However, expression of specific oatps was significantly downregulated upon LGTV infection of tick cells in vitro. Treatment of tick cells with OATP inhibitor significantly reduced LGTV loads, kynurenine amino transferase (kat), a gene involved in the production of tryptophan metabolite xanthurenic acid (XA), levels and expression of several oatps in tick cells. Furthermore, bioinformatics characterization of OATPs from some of the medically important vectors including ticks, mosquitoes and lice revealed the presence of several glycosylation, phosphorylation and myristoylation sites. Conclusions This study provides additional evidence on the role of arthropod OATPs in vector-intracellular pathogen interactions. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13071-018-3160-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vikas Taank
- Department of Biological Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, USA
| | - Wenshuo Zhou
- Department of Biological Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, USA
| | - Xuran Zhuang
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia-Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA
| | - John F Anderson
- Department of Entomology, Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Utpal Pal
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia-Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA
| | - Hameeda Sultana
- Department of Biological Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, USA.,Center for Molecular Medicine, College of Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, USA
| | - Girish Neelakanta
- Department of Biological Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, USA. .,Center for Molecular Medicine, College of Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, USA.
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26
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Jaenson TGT, Petersson EH, Jaenson DGE, Kindberg J, Pettersson JHO, Hjertqvist M, Medlock JM, Bengtsson H. The importance of wildlife in the ecology and epidemiology of the TBE virus in Sweden: incidence of human TBE correlates with abundance of deer and hares. Parasit Vectors 2018; 11:477. [PMID: 30153856 PMCID: PMC6114827 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-018-3057-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2017] [Accepted: 08/10/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is one tick-transmitted disease where the human incidence has increased in some European regions during the last two decades. We aim to find the most important factors causing the increasing incidence of human TBE in Sweden. Based on a review of published data we presume that certain temperature-related variables and the population densities of transmission hosts, i.e. small mammals, and of primary tick maintenance hosts, i.e. cervids and lagomorphs, of the TBE virus vector Ixodes ricinus, are among the potentially most important factors affecting the TBE incidence. Therefore, we compare hunting data of the major tick maintenance hosts and two of their important predators, and four climatic variables with the annual numbers of human cases of neuroinvasive TBE. Data for six Swedish regions where human TBE incidence is high or has recently increased are examined by a time-series analysis. Results from the six regions are combined using a meta-analytical method. Results With a one-year time lag, the roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), red deer (Cervus elaphus), mountain hare (Lepus timidus) and European hare (Lepus europaeus) showed positive covariance; the Eurasian elk (moose, Alces alces) and fallow deer (Dama dama) negative covariance; whereas the wild boar (Sus scrofa), lynx (Lynx lynx), red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and the four climate parameters showed no significant covariance with TBE incidence. All game species combined showed positive covariance. Conclusions The epidemiology of TBE varies with time and geography and depends on numerous factors, i.a. climate, virus genotypes, and densities of vectors, tick maintenance hosts and transmission hosts. This study suggests that the increased availability of deer to I. ricinus over large areas of potential tick habitats in southern Sweden increased the density and range of I. ricinus and created new TBEV foci, which resulted in increased incidence of human TBE. New foci may be established by TBE virus-infected birds, or by birds or migrating mammals infested with TBEV-infected ticks. Generally, persistence of TBE virus foci appears to require presence of transmission-competent small mammals, especially mice (Apodemus spp.) or bank voles (Myodes glareolus). Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13071-018-3057-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas G T Jaenson
- Department of Organismal Biology, Uppsala University, Norbyvägen 18d, SE-752 36, Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Erik H Petersson
- Department of Aquatic Resources, Division of Freshwater Research, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Stångholmsvägen 2, SE-178 93, Drottningholm, Sweden
| | - David G E Jaenson
- Department of Automatic Control, Lund University, SE-221 00, Lund, Sweden
| | - Jonas Kindberg
- Department of Wildlife, Fish and Environmental Studies, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-901 83, Umeå, Sweden
| | - John H-O Pettersson
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology and Modelling, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Lovisenberggata 8, N-0456, Oslo, Norway.,Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology (IMBIM), Zoonosis Science Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.,Marie Bashir Institute for Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity, Charles Perkins Centre, School of Life and Environmental Sciences and Sydney Medical School, the University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, 2006, Australia.,Public Health Agency of Sweden, Nobels väg 18, SE-171 82, Solna, Sweden
| | - Marika Hjertqvist
- Public Health Agency of Sweden, Nobels väg 18, SE-171 82, Solna, Sweden
| | - Jolyon M Medlock
- Medical Entomology Group, Emergency Response Department, Public Health England, Porton Down, Salisbury, UK.,Health Protection Research Unit in Emerging Infections & Zoonoses, Porton Down, Salisbury, UK
| | - Hans Bengtsson
- Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute (SMHI), Gothenburg, Sweden
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27
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Mlera L, Bloom ME. The Role of Mammalian Reservoir Hosts in Tick-Borne Flavivirus Biology. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2018; 8:298. [PMID: 30234026 PMCID: PMC6127651 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2018.00298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2018] [Accepted: 08/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Small-to-medium sized mammals and large animals are lucrative sources of blood meals for ixodid ticks that transmit life-threatening tick-borne flaviviruses (TBFVs). TBFVs have been isolated from various organs obtained from wild-caught Myodes and Apodemus species in Europe and Asia. Thus, these rodents are well-established reservoirs of TBFVs. Wild-caught Peromyscus species have demonstrated seropositivity against Powassan virus, the only TBFV known to circulate in North America, suggesting that they may play an important role in the biology of the virus in this geographic region. However, virus isolation from Peromyscus species is yet to be demonstrated. Wild-caught medium-sized mammals, such as woodchucks (Marmota monax) and skunks (Mephitis mephitis) have also demonstrated seropositivity against POWV, and virus was isolated from apparently healthy animals. Despite the well-established knowledge that small-to-medium sized animals are TBFV reservoirs, specific molecular biology addressing host-pathogen interactions remains poorly understood. Elucidating these interactions will be critical for gaining insight into the mechanism(s) of viral pathogenesis and/or resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luwanika Mlera
- Biology of Vector-Borne Viruses Section, Laboratory of Virology, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Hamilton, MT, United States
| | - Marshall E Bloom
- Biology of Vector-Borne Viruses Section, Laboratory of Virology, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Hamilton, MT, United States
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28
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Grzybek M, Alsarraf M, Tołkacz K, Behnke-Borowczyk J, Biernat B, Stańczak J, Strachecka A, Guz L, Szczepaniak K, Paleolog J, Behnke JM, Bajer A. Seroprevalence of TBEV in bank voles from Poland-a long-term approach. Emerg Microbes Infect 2018; 7:145. [PMID: 30108201 PMCID: PMC6092418 DOI: 10.1038/s41426-018-0149-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2018] [Revised: 05/31/2018] [Accepted: 07/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Rodents are known to play a significant role as reservoir hosts for TBEV. During three sequential expeditions at 4-year intervals to three ecologically similar study sites in NE Poland, we trapped bank voles (Myodes glareolus) and then tested their blood for the presence of specific antiviral antibodies to TBEV. The strongest effects on seroprevalence were the extrinsic factors, site of capture of voles and year of sampling. Seroprevalence increased markedly with increasing host age, and our analysis revealed significant interactions among these three factors. Seroprevalence did not differ between the sexes. Therefore, based on the seroprevalence results, the dynamics of TBEV infection differ significantly in time, between local sub-populations of bank voles and with increasing host age. To fully understand the circulation of the virus among these reservoir hosts and in the environment, long-term monitoring is required and should employ a multi-site approach, such as the one adopted in the current study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maciej Grzybek
- Department of Tropical Parasitology, Medical University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland.
| | | | | | | | - Beata Biernat
- Department of Tropical Parasitology, Medical University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Joanna Stańczak
- Department of Tropical Parasitology, Medical University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Aneta Strachecka
- Department of Biological Basis of Animal Production, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Lublin, Poland
| | - Leszek Guz
- Department of Biology and Fish Disease, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Lublin, Poland
| | - Klaudiusz Szczepaniak
- Department of Parasitology and Invasive Diseases, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Lublin, Poland
| | - Jerzy Paleolog
- Department of Zoology, Animal Ecology & Wildlife Management, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Lublin, Poland
| | - Jerzy M Behnke
- School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Anna Bajer
- Department of Parasitology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
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Lindqvist R, Upadhyay A, Överby AK. Tick-Borne Flaviviruses and the Type I Interferon Response. Viruses 2018; 10:E340. [PMID: 29933625 PMCID: PMC6071234 DOI: 10.3390/v10070340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2018] [Revised: 06/15/2018] [Accepted: 06/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Flaviviruses are globally distributed pathogens causing millions of human infections every year. Flaviviruses are arthropod-borne viruses and are mainly transmitted by either ticks or mosquitoes. Mosquito-borne flaviviruses and their interactions with the innate immune response have been well-studied and reviewed extensively, thus this review will discuss tick-borne flaviviruses and their interactions with the host innate immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Lindqvist
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Virology, Umeå University, SE-90185 Umeå, Sweden.
- Laboratory for Molecular Infection Medicine Sweden (MIMS), Umeå University, SE-90187 Umeå, Sweden.
- Umeå Centre for Microbial Research (UCMR), Umeå University, SE-90187 Umeå, Sweden.
| | - Arunkumar Upadhyay
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Virology, Umeå University, SE-90185 Umeå, Sweden.
- Laboratory for Molecular Infection Medicine Sweden (MIMS), Umeå University, SE-90187 Umeå, Sweden.
- Umeå Centre for Microbial Research (UCMR), Umeå University, SE-90187 Umeå, Sweden.
| | - Anna K Överby
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Virology, Umeå University, SE-90185 Umeå, Sweden.
- Laboratory for Molecular Infection Medicine Sweden (MIMS), Umeå University, SE-90187 Umeå, Sweden.
- Umeå Centre for Microbial Research (UCMR), Umeå University, SE-90187 Umeå, Sweden.
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30
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Zhou W, Woodson M, Neupane B, Bai F, Sherman MB, Choi KH, Neelakanta G, Sultana H. Exosomes serve as novel modes of tick-borne flavivirus transmission from arthropod to human cells and facilitates dissemination of viral RNA and proteins to the vertebrate neuronal cells. PLoS Pathog 2018; 14:e1006764. [PMID: 29300779 PMCID: PMC5754134 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2017] [Accepted: 11/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Molecular determinants and mechanisms of arthropod-borne flavivirus transmission to the vertebrate host are poorly understood. In this study, we show for the first time that a cell line from medically important arthropods, such as ticks, secretes extracellular vesicles (EVs) including exosomes that mediate transmission of flavivirus RNA and proteins to the human cells. Our study shows that tick-borne Langat virus (LGTV), a model pathogen closely related to tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV), profusely uses arthropod exosomes for transmission of viral RNA and proteins to the human- skin keratinocytes and blood endothelial cells. Cryo-electron microscopy showed the presence of purified arthropod/neuronal exosomes with the size range of 30 to 200 nm in diameter. Both positive and negative strands of LGTV RNA and viral envelope-protein were detected inside exosomes derived from arthropod, murine and human cells. Detection of Nonstructural 1 (NS1) protein in arthropod and neuronal exosomes further suggested that exosomes contain viral proteins. Viral RNA and proteins in exosomes derived from tick and mammalian cells were secured, highly infectious and replicative in all tested evaluations. Treatment with GW4869, a selective inhibitor that blocks exosome release affected LGTV loads in both arthropod and mammalian cell-derived exosomes. Transwell-migration assays showed that exosomes derived from infected-brain-microvascular endothelial cells (that constitute the blood-brain barrier) facilitated LGTV RNA and protein transmission, crossing of the barriers and infection of neuronal cells. Neuronal infection showed abundant loads of both tick-borne LGTV and mosquito-borne West Nile virus RNA in exosomes. Our data also suggest that exosome-mediated LGTV viral transmission is clathrin-dependent. Collectively, our results suggest that flaviviruses uses arthropod-derived exosomes as a novel means for viral RNA and protein transmission from the vector, and the vertebrate exosomes for dissemination within the host that may subsequently allow neuroinvasion and neuropathogenesis.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Arthropod Vectors/cytology
- Arthropod Vectors/ultrastructure
- Arthropod Vectors/virology
- Cell Line
- Cells, Cultured
- Cerebral Cortex/cytology
- Cerebral Cortex/pathology
- Cerebral Cortex/ultrastructure
- Cerebral Cortex/virology
- Chlorocebus aethiops
- Coculture Techniques
- Cryoelectron Microscopy
- Embryo, Mammalian/cytology
- Encephalitis Viruses, Tick-Borne/pathogenicity
- Encephalitis Viruses, Tick-Borne/physiology
- Encephalitis Viruses, Tick-Borne/ultrastructure
- Encephalitis, Tick-Borne/pathology
- Encephalitis, Tick-Borne/transmission
- Encephalitis, Tick-Borne/virology
- Endothelium, Vascular/cytology
- Endothelium, Vascular/pathology
- Endothelium, Vascular/ultrastructure
- Endothelium, Vascular/virology
- Exosomes/ultrastructure
- Exosomes/virology
- Host-Parasite Interactions
- Host-Pathogen Interactions
- Humans
- Ixodes/cytology
- Ixodes/ultrastructure
- Ixodes/virology
- Keratinocytes/cytology
- Keratinocytes/pathology
- Keratinocytes/ultrastructure
- Keratinocytes/virology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Models, Biological
- Neurons/cytology
- Neurons/pathology
- Neurons/ultrastructure
- Neurons/virology
- RNA, Viral/metabolism
- Viral Proteins/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenshuo Zhou
- Department of Biological Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, United States of America
| | - Michael Woodson
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, United States of America
| | - Biswas Neupane
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS, United States of America
| | - Fengwei Bai
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS, United States of America
| | - Michael B. Sherman
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, United States of America
- Sealy Center for Structural Biology and Molecular Biophysics, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, United States of America
| | - Kyung H. Choi
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, United States of America
| | - Girish Neelakanta
- Department of Biological Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, United States of America
- Center for Molecular Medicine, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, United States of America
| | - Hameeda Sultana
- Department of Biological Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, United States of America
- Center for Molecular Medicine, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases and International Health, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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31
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Grabowski JM, Hill CA. A Roadmap for Tick-Borne Flavivirus Research in the "Omics" Era. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2017; 7:519. [PMID: 29312896 PMCID: PMC5744076 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2017.00519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2017] [Accepted: 12/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Tick-borne flaviviruses (TBFs) affect human health globally. Human vaccines provide protection against some TBFs, and antivirals are available, yet TBF-specific control strategies are limited. Advances in genomics offer hope to understand the viral complement transmitted by ticks, and to develop disruptive, data-driven technologies for virus detection, treatment, and control. The genome assemblies of Ixodes scapularis, the North American tick vector of the TBF, Powassan virus, and other tick vectors, are providing insights into tick biology and pathogen transmission and serve as nucleation points for expanded genomic research. Systems biology has yielded insights to the response of tick cells to viral infection at the transcript and protein level, and new protein targets for vaccines to limit virus transmission. Reverse vaccinology approaches have moved candidate tick antigenic epitopes into vaccine development pipelines. Traditional drug and in silico screening have identified candidate antivirals, and target-based approaches have been developed to identify novel acaricides. Yet, additional genomic resources are required to expand TBF research. Priorities include genome assemblies for tick vectors, “omic” studies involving high consequence pathogens and vectors, and emphasizing viral metagenomics, tick-virus metabolomics, and structural genomics of TBF and tick proteins. Also required are resources for forward genetics, including the development of tick strains with quantifiable traits, genetic markers and linkage maps. Here we review the current state of genomic research on ticks and tick-borne viruses with an emphasis on TBFs. We outline an ambitious 10-year roadmap for research in the “omics era,” and explore key milestones needed to accomplish the goal of delivering three new vaccines, antivirals and acaricides for TBF control by 2030.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey M Grabowski
- Biology of Vector-Borne Viruses Section, Laboratory of Virology, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institutes of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, United States
| | - Catherine A Hill
- Department of Entomology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States.,Purdue Institute of Inflammation, Immunology and Infectious Disease, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
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32
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Grabowski JM, Tsetsarkin KA, Long D, Scott DP, Rosenke R, Schwan TG, Mlera L, Offerdahl DK, Pletnev AG, Bloom ME. Flavivirus Infection of Ixodes scapularis (Black-Legged Tick) Ex Vivo Organotypic Cultures and Applications for Disease Control. mBio 2017; 8:e01255-17. [PMID: 28830948 PMCID: PMC5565970 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01255-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2017] [Accepted: 07/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Ixodes scapularis ticks transmit many infectious agents that cause disease, including tick-borne flaviviruses (TBFVs). TBFV infections cause thousands of human encephalitis cases worldwide annually. In the United States, human TBFV infections with Powassan virus (POWV) are increasing and have a fatality rate of 10 to 30%. Additionally, Langat virus (LGTV) is a TBFV of low neurovirulence and is used as a model TBFV. TBFV replication and dissemination within I. scapularis organs are poorly characterized, and a deeper understanding of virus biology in this vector may inform effective countermeasures to reduce TBFV transmission. Here, we describe short-term, I. scapularis organ culture models of TBFV infection. Ex vivo organs were metabolically active for 9 to 10 days and were permissive to LGTV and POWV replication. Imaging and videography demonstrated replication and spread of green fluorescent protein-expressing LGTV in the organs. Immunohistochemical staining confirmed LGTV envelope and POWV protein synthesis within the infected organs. LGTV- and POWV-infected organs produced infectious LGTV and POWV; thus, the ex vivo cultures were suitable for study of virus replication in individual organs. LGTV- and POWV-infected midgut and salivary glands were subjected to double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) transfection with dsRNA to the LGTV 3' untranslated region (UTR), which reduced infectious LGTV and POWV replication, providing a proof-of-concept use of RNA interference in I. scapularis organ cultures to study the effects on TBFV replication. The results contribute important information on TBFV localization within ex vivo I. scapularis organs and provide a significant translational tool for evaluating recombinant, live vaccine candidates and potential tick transcripts and proteins for possible therapeutic use and vaccine development to reduce TBFV transmission.IMPORTANCE Tick-borne flavivirus (TBFV) infections cause neurological and/or hemorrhagic disease in humans worldwide. There are currently no licensed therapeutics or vaccines against Powassan virus (POWV), the only TBFV known to circulate in North America. Evaluating tick vector targets for antitick vaccines directed at reducing TBFV infection within the arthropod vector is a critical step in identifying efficient approaches to controlling TBFV transmission. This study characterized infection of female Ixodes scapularis tick organ cultures of midgut, salivary glands, and synganglion with the low-neurovirulence Langat virus (LGTV) and the more pathogenic POWV. Cell types of specific organs were susceptible to TBFV infection, and a difference in LGTV and POWV replication was noted in TBFV-infected organs. This tick organ culture model of TBFV infection will be useful for various applications, such as screening of tick endogenous dsRNA corresponding to potential control targets within midgut and salivary glands to confirm restriction of TBFV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey M Grabowski
- Biology of Vector-Borne Viruses Section, Laboratory of Virology, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, NIAID, NIH, Hamilton, Montana, USA
| | - Konstantin A Tsetsarkin
- Neurotropic Flaviviruses Section, Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Dan Long
- Rocky Mountain Veterinary Branch, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, NIAID, NIH, Hamilton, Montana, USA
| | - Dana P Scott
- Rocky Mountain Veterinary Branch, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, NIAID, NIH, Hamilton, Montana, USA
| | - Rebecca Rosenke
- Rocky Mountain Veterinary Branch, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, NIAID, NIH, Hamilton, Montana, USA
| | - Tom G Schwan
- Laboratory of Zoonotic Pathogens, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, NIAID, NIH, Hamilton, Montana, USA
| | - Luwanika Mlera
- Biology of Vector-Borne Viruses Section, Laboratory of Virology, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, NIAID, NIH, Hamilton, Montana, USA
| | - Danielle K Offerdahl
- Biology of Vector-Borne Viruses Section, Laboratory of Virology, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, NIAID, NIH, Hamilton, Montana, USA
| | - Alexander G Pletnev
- Neurotropic Flaviviruses Section, Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Marshall E Bloom
- Biology of Vector-Borne Viruses Section, Laboratory of Virology, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, NIAID, NIH, Hamilton, Montana, USA
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Kazimírová M, Thangamani S, Bartíková P, Hermance M, Holíková V, Štibrániová I, Nuttall PA. Tick-Borne Viruses and Biological Processes at the Tick-Host-Virus Interface. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2017; 7:339. [PMID: 28798904 PMCID: PMC5526847 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2017.00339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2017] [Accepted: 07/11/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Ticks are efficient vectors of arboviruses, although less than 10% of tick species are known to be virus vectors. Most tick-borne viruses (TBV) are RNA viruses some of which cause serious diseases in humans and animals world-wide. Several TBV impacting human or domesticated animal health have been found to emerge or re-emerge recently. In order to survive in nature, TBV must infect and replicate in both vertebrate and tick cells, representing very different physiological environments. Information on molecular mechanisms that allow TBV to switch between infecting and replicating in tick and vertebrate cells is scarce. In general, ticks succeed in completing their blood meal thanks to a plethora of biologically active molecules in their saliva that counteract and modulate different arms of the host defense responses (haemostasis, inflammation, innate and acquired immunity, and wound healing). The transmission of TBV occurs primarily during tick feeding and is a complex process, known to be promoted by tick saliva constituents. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms of TBV transmission are poorly understood. Immunomodulatory properties of tick saliva helping overcome the first line of defense to injury and early interactions at the tick-host skin interface appear to be essential in successful TBV transmission and infection of susceptible vertebrate hosts. The local host skin site of tick attachment, modulated by tick saliva, is an important focus of virus replication. Immunomodulation of the tick attachment site also promotes co-feeding transmission of viruses from infected to non-infected ticks in the absence of host viraemia (non-viraemic transmission). Future research should be aimed at identification of the key tick salivary molecules promoting virus transmission, and a molecular description of tick-host-virus interactions and of tick-mediated skin immunomodulation. Such insights will enable the rationale design of anti-tick vaccines that protect against disease caused by tick-borne viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mária Kazimírová
- Department of Medical Zoology, Institute of Zoology, Slovak Academy of SciencesBratislava, Slovakia
| | - Saravanan Thangamani
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical BranchGalveston, TX, United States
- Institute for Human Infections and Immunity, University of Texas Medical BranchGalveston, TX, United States
- Center for Tropical Diseases, University of Texas Medical BranchGalveston, TX, United States
| | - Pavlína Bartíková
- Biomedical Research Center, Institute of Virology, Slovak Academy of SciencesBratislava, Slovakia
| | - Meghan Hermance
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical BranchGalveston, TX, United States
- Institute for Human Infections and Immunity, University of Texas Medical BranchGalveston, TX, United States
- Center for Tropical Diseases, University of Texas Medical BranchGalveston, TX, United States
| | - Viera Holíková
- Biomedical Research Center, Institute of Virology, Slovak Academy of SciencesBratislava, Slovakia
| | - Iveta Štibrániová
- Biomedical Research Center, Institute of Virology, Slovak Academy of SciencesBratislava, Slovakia
| | - Patricia A. Nuttall
- Department of Zoology, University of OxfordOxford, United Kingdom
- Centre for Ecology and HydrologyWallingford, United Kingdom
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34
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Kuno G, Mackenzie JS, Junglen S, Hubálek Z, Plyusnin A, Gubler DJ. Vertebrate Reservoirs of Arboviruses: Myth, Synonym of Amplifier, or Reality? Viruses 2017; 9:E185. [PMID: 28703771 PMCID: PMC5537677 DOI: 10.3390/v9070185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2017] [Revised: 07/10/2017] [Accepted: 07/10/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The rapid succession of the pandemic of arbovirus diseases, such as dengue, West Nile fever, chikungunya, and Zika fever, has intensified research on these and other arbovirus diseases worldwide. Investigating the unique mode of vector-borne transmission requires a clear understanding of the roles of vertebrates. One major obstacle to this understanding is the ambiguity of the arbovirus definition originally established by the World Health Organization. The paucity of pertinent information on arbovirus transmission at the time contributed to the notion that vertebrates played the role of reservoir in the arbovirus transmission cycle. Because this notion is a salient feature of the arbovirus definition, it is important to reexamine its validity. This review addresses controversial issues concerning vertebrate reservoirs and their role in arbovirus persistence in nature, examines the genesis of the problem from a historical perspective, discusses various unresolved issues from multiple points of view, assesses the present status of the notion in light of current knowledge, and provides options for a solution to resolve the issue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Goro Kuno
- Formerly at the Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases, Centers for Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, CO, USA.
| | - John S Mackenzie
- Faculty of Medical Sciences, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, WA 6845, Australia.
- Division of Microbiology & Infectious Diseases, PathWest, Nedlands, Western Australia 6009.
| | - Sandra Junglen
- Institute of Virology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Helmut-Ruska-Haus, Chariteplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Zdeněk Hubálek
- Institute of Vertebrate Biology, Academy of Sciences of Czech Republic, 60365 Brno, Czech Republic.
| | - Alexander Plyusnin
- Department of Virology, University of Helsinki, Haartmaninkatu 3, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Duane J Gubler
- Program in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, 8 College Rd., Singapore 169857 Singapore.
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The role of ticks in the maintenance and transmission of Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus: A review of published field and laboratory studies. Antiviral Res 2017; 144:93-119. [PMID: 28579441 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2017.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2017] [Revised: 05/21/2017] [Accepted: 05/30/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
This manuscript is part of a series of reviews that aim to cover published research on Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF) and its etiological agent, CCHF virus (CCHFV). The virus is maintained and transmitted in a vertical and horizontal transmission cycle involving a variety of wild and domestic vertebrate species that act as amplification hosts, without showing signs of illness. These vertebrates have traditionally been considered reservoirs of CCHFV, but in fact they develop only a transient viremia, while the virus can persist in ticks for their entire lifespan, and can also be transmitted vertically to the next generation. As a result, ticks are now considered to be both the vector and the reservoir for the virus. CCHFV has been detected in a wide range of tick species, but only a few have been proven to be vectors and reservoirs, mainly because most published studies have been performed under a broad variety of conditions, precluding definitive characterization. This article reviews the published literature, summarizes current knowledge of the role of ticks in CCHFV maintenance and transmission and provides guidance for how to fill the knowledge gaps. Special focus is given to existing data on tick species in which vertical passage has been demonstrated under natural or experimental conditions. At the same time, we identify earlier reports that used unreliable methods and perceptions to ascribe a vector role to some species of ticks, and have contributed to confusion regarding viral transmission. We also examine epidemiological pathways of CCHFV circulation and discuss priority areas for future research.
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Talactac MR, Yada Y, Yoshii K, Hernandez EP, Kusakisako K, Maeda H, Galay RL, Fujisaki K, Mochizuki M, Tanaka T. Characterization and antiviral activity of a newly identified defensin-like peptide, HEdefensin, in the hard tick Haemaphysalis longicornis. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2017; 68:98-107. [PMID: 27871830 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2016.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2016] [Revised: 11/15/2016] [Accepted: 11/17/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Tick defensins are antimicrobial peptides that play a major role in the innate immunity of ticks by providing a direct antimicrobial defense. In this study, we identified and characterized a defensin-like encoding gene, HEdefensin, from the expressed sequence tags (EST) database of hemolymph from the hard tick Haemaphysalis longicornis. Expression of the gene in whole adult ticks and in different organs was upregulated during blood feeding, though not after Langat virus (LGTV) challenge. A synthetic HEdefensin peptide demonstrated significant virucidal activity against LGTV but not against an adenovirus in co-incubation virucidal assays. Moreover, the RNAi-mediated gene silencing of HEdefensin did not significantly affect the virus titer as compared to the control group. The data reported here have established the in vitro virucidal activity of the peptide against LGTV. However, its role in the innate antiviral immunity of H. longicornis remains to be explored, and further studies are needed to fully evaluate the potential biological activities of the peptide against bacteria, fungi or parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melbourne Rio Talactac
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, 1-21-24 Korimoto, Kagoshima 890-0065, Japan; Department of Pathological and Preventive Veterinary Science, The United Graduate School of Veterinary Science, Yamaguchi University, Yoshida, Yamaguchi 753-8515, Japan; Department of Clinical and Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Cavite State University, Cavite 4122, Philippines
| | - Yurika Yada
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, 1-21-24 Korimoto, Kagoshima 890-0065, Japan
| | - Kentaro Yoshii
- Laboratory of Public Health, Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Kita-ku Kita-18 Nishi-9, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-0818, Japan
| | - Emmanuel Pacia Hernandez
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, 1-21-24 Korimoto, Kagoshima 890-0065, Japan; Department of Pathological and Preventive Veterinary Science, The United Graduate School of Veterinary Science, Yamaguchi University, Yoshida, Yamaguchi 753-8515, Japan
| | - Kodai Kusakisako
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, 1-21-24 Korimoto, Kagoshima 890-0065, Japan; Department of Pathological and Preventive Veterinary Science, The United Graduate School of Veterinary Science, Yamaguchi University, Yoshida, Yamaguchi 753-8515, Japan
| | - Hiroki Maeda
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, 1-21-24 Korimoto, Kagoshima 890-0065, Japan; Department of Pathological and Preventive Veterinary Science, The United Graduate School of Veterinary Science, Yamaguchi University, Yoshida, Yamaguchi 753-8515, Japan
| | - Remil Linggatong Galay
- Department of Veterinary Paraclinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of the Philippines Los Baños, Los Baños, Laguna 4031, Philippines
| | - Kozo Fujisaki
- National Agricultural and Food Research Organization, 3-1-5 Kannondai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0856, Japan
| | - Masami Mochizuki
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, 1-21-24 Korimoto, Kagoshima 890-0065, Japan; Department of Pathological and Preventive Veterinary Science, The United Graduate School of Veterinary Science, Yamaguchi University, Yoshida, Yamaguchi 753-8515, Japan
| | - Tetsuya Tanaka
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, 1-21-24 Korimoto, Kagoshima 890-0065, Japan; Department of Pathological and Preventive Veterinary Science, The United Graduate School of Veterinary Science, Yamaguchi University, Yoshida, Yamaguchi 753-8515, Japan.
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37
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Mlera L, Meade-White K, Saturday G, Scott D, Bloom ME. Modeling Powassan virus infection in Peromyscus leucopus, a natural host. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2017; 11:e0005346. [PMID: 28141800 PMCID: PMC5302833 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2016] [Revised: 02/10/2017] [Accepted: 01/22/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The tick-borne flavivirus, Powassan virus (POWV) causes life-threatening encephalitis in humans in North America and Europe. POWV is transmitted by ixodid tick vectors that feed on small to medium-sized mammals, such as Peromyscus leucopus mice, which may serve as either reservoir, bridge or amplification hosts. Intraperitoneal and intracranial inoculation of 4-week old Peromyscus leucopus mice with 103 PFU of POWV did not result in overt clinical signs of disease. However, following intracranial inoculation, infected mice seroconverted to POWV and histopathological examinations revealed that the mice uniformly developed mild lymphocytic perivascular cuffing and microgliosis in the brain and spinal cord from 5 to 15 days post infection (dpi), suggesting an early inflammatory response. In contrast, intracranial inoculation of 4-week old C57BL/6 and BALB/c mice was lethal by 5 dpi. Intraperitoneal inoculation was lethal in BALB/c mice, but 40% (2/5) of C57BL/6 mice survived. We concluded that Peromyscus leucopus mice infected i.c. with a lethal dose of POWV support a limited infection, restricted to the central nervous system and mount an antibody response to the virus. However, they fail to develop clinical signs of disease and are able to control the infection. These results suggest the involvement of restriction factors, and the mechanism by which Peromyscus leucopus mice restrict POWV infection remains under study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luwanika Mlera
- Laboratory of Virology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, Hamilton, Montana, United States of America
| | - Kimberly Meade-White
- Rocky Mountain Veterinary Branch, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, Hamilton, Montana, United States of America
| | - Greg Saturday
- Rocky Mountain Veterinary Branch, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, Hamilton, Montana, United States of America
| | - Dana Scott
- Rocky Mountain Veterinary Branch, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, Hamilton, Montana, United States of America
| | - Marshall E. Bloom
- Laboratory of Virology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, Hamilton, Montana, United States of America
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Tsetsarkin KA, Liu G, Kenney H, Hermance M, Thangamani S, Pletnev AG. Concurrent micro-RNA mediated silencing of tick-borne flavivirus replication in tick vector and in the brain of vertebrate host. Sci Rep 2016; 6:33088. [PMID: 27620807 PMCID: PMC5020608 DOI: 10.1038/srep33088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2016] [Accepted: 08/19/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Tick-borne viruses include medically important zoonotic pathogens that can cause life-threatening diseases. Unlike mosquito-borne viruses, whose impact can be restrained via mosquito population control programs, for tick-borne viruses only vaccination remains the reliable means of disease prevention. For live vaccine viruses a concern exists, that spillovers from viremic vaccinees could result in introduction of genetically modified viruses into sustainable tick-vertebrate host transmission cycle in nature. To restrict tick-borne flavivirus (Langat virus, LGTV) vector tropism, we inserted target sequences for tick-specific microRNAs (mir-1, mir-275 and mir-279) individually or in combination into several distant regions of LGTV genome. This caused selective attenuation of viral replication in tick-derived cells. LGTV expressing combinations of target sequences for tick- and vertebrate CNS-specific miRNAs were developed. The resulting viruses replicated efficiently and remained stable in simian Vero cells, which do not express these miRNAs, however were severely restricted to replicate in tick-derived cells. In addition, simultaneous dual miRNA targeting led to silencing of virus replication in live Ixodes ricinus ticks and abolished virus neurotropism in highly permissive newborn mice. The concurrent restriction of adverse replication events in vertebrate and invertebrate hosts will, therefore, ensure the environmental safety of live tick-borne virus vaccine candidates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konstantin A. Tsetsarkin
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Guangping Liu
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Heather Kenney
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Meghan Hermance
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch (UTMB), Galveston, Texas, USA
| | - Saravanan Thangamani
- Department of Pathology, Galveston National Laboratory, UTMB, Galveston, Texas, USA
| | - Alexander G. Pletnev
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
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Talactac MR, Yoshii K, Maeda H, Kusakisako K, Hernandez EP, Tsuji N, Fujisaki K, Galay RL, Tanaka T, Mochizuki M. Virucidal activity of Haemaphysalis longicornis longicin P4 peptide against tick-borne encephalitis virus surrogate Langat virus. Parasit Vectors 2016; 9:59. [PMID: 26830840 PMCID: PMC4736483 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-016-1344-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2015] [Accepted: 01/26/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Longicin is a defensin-like peptide, identified from the midgut epithelium of hard tick Haemaphysalis longicornis. Several studies have already shown the antimicrobial and parasiticidal activities of longicin peptide and one of its synthetic partial analogs, longicin P4. In this study, longicin peptides were tested for potential antiviral activity against Langat virus (LGTV), a tick-borne flavivirus. Methods Longicin P1 and P4 peptides were chemically synthesized. Antiviral activity of the longicin peptides against LGTV was evaluated through in vitro virucidal assays, wherein the antiviral efficacy was determined by reduction in number of viral foci and virus yield. Additionally, longicin P4 was also tested for its activity against human adenovirus, a non-enveloped virus. Lastly, to assess the importance of longicin on the innate antiviral immunity of H. longicornis ticks, gene silencing through RNAi was performed. Results Longicin P4 produced significant viral foci reduction and lower virus yield against LGTV, while longicin P1 failed to demonstrate the same results. Conversely, both longicin partial analogs (P1 and P4) did not show significant antiviral activity when tested on adenovirus. In addition, longicin-silenced ticks showed significantly higher virus titer after 7 days post-infection but a significantly lower titer was detected after an additional 14 days of observation as compared to the Luc dsRNA-injected ticks. Mortality in both groups did not show any significant difference. Conclusion Our results suggest that longicin P4 has in vitro antiviral activity against LGTV but not against a non-enveloped virus such as adenovirus. Likewise, though most cationic antimicrobial peptides like longicin act directly on target membranes, the exact mechanism of membrane targeting of longicin P4 in enveloped viruses, such as LGTV, requires further investigation. Lastly, while the in vitro virucidal capacity of longicin P4 was confirmed in this study, the role of the endogenous tick longicin in the antiviral defense of H. longicornis against LGTV still remains to be demonstrated. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13071-016-1344-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melbourne Rio Talactac
- Department of Pathological and Preventive Veterinary Science, The United Graduate School of Veterinary Science, Yamaguchi University, Yoshida, Yamaguchi, 753-8515, Japan. .,Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, 1-21-24 Korimoto, Kagoshima, 890-0065, Japan. .,Department of Clinical and Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Cavite State University, Cavite, 4122, Philippines.
| | - Kentaro Yoshii
- Laboratory of Public Health, Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Kita-ku kita-18 nishi-9, Sapporo, Hokkaido, 060-0818, Japan.
| | - Hiroki Maeda
- Department of Pathological and Preventive Veterinary Science, The United Graduate School of Veterinary Science, Yamaguchi University, Yoshida, Yamaguchi, 753-8515, Japan. .,Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, 1-21-24 Korimoto, Kagoshima, 890-0065, Japan.
| | - Kodai Kusakisako
- Department of Pathological and Preventive Veterinary Science, The United Graduate School of Veterinary Science, Yamaguchi University, Yoshida, Yamaguchi, 753-8515, Japan. .,Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, 1-21-24 Korimoto, Kagoshima, 890-0065, Japan.
| | - Emmanuel Pacia Hernandez
- Department of Pathological and Preventive Veterinary Science, The United Graduate School of Veterinary Science, Yamaguchi University, Yoshida, Yamaguchi, 753-8515, Japan.
| | - Naotoshi Tsuji
- Department of Parasitology, Kitasato University School of Medicine, 1-15-1 Kitasato, Minami, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, 252-0374, Japan.
| | - Kozo Fujisaki
- Zen-noh Institute of Animal Health, Ohja, Sakura, Chiba, 285-0043, Japan.
| | - Remil Linggatong Galay
- Department of Veterinary Paraclinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of the Philippines Los Baños, Los Baños, Laguna, 4031, Philippines.
| | - Tetsuya Tanaka
- Department of Pathological and Preventive Veterinary Science, The United Graduate School of Veterinary Science, Yamaguchi University, Yoshida, Yamaguchi, 753-8515, Japan. .,Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, 1-21-24 Korimoto, Kagoshima, 890-0065, Japan.
| | - Masami Mochizuki
- Department of Pathological and Preventive Veterinary Science, The United Graduate School of Veterinary Science, Yamaguchi University, Yoshida, Yamaguchi, 753-8515, Japan. .,Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, 1-21-24 Korimoto, Kagoshima, 890-0065, Japan.
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Aslam S, Latif MS, Daud M, Rahman ZU, Tabassum B, Riaz MS, Khan A, Tariq M, Husnain T. Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever: Risk factors and control measures for the infection abatement. Biomed Rep 2015; 4:15-20. [PMID: 26870327 DOI: 10.3892/br.2015.545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2015] [Accepted: 09/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF) is a vector-borne viral disease, widely distributed in different regions of the world. The fever is caused by the CCHF virus (CCHFV), which belongs to the Nairovirus genus and Bunyaviridae family. The virus is clustered in seven genotypes, which are Africa-1, Africa-2, Africa-3, Europe-1, Europe-2, Asia-1 and Asia-2. The virus is highly pathogenic in nature, easily transmissible and has a high case fatality rate of 10-40%. The reservoir and vector of CCHFV are the ticks of the Hyalomma genus. Therefore, the circulation of this virus depends upon the distribution of the ticks. The virus can be transmitted from tick to animal, animal to human and human to human. The major symptoms include headache, high fever, abdominal pain, myalgia, hypotension and flushed face. As the disease progresses, severe symptoms start appearing, which include petechiae, ecchymosis, epistaxis, bleeding gums and emesis. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, quantitative polymerase chain reaction, antigen detection, serum neutralization and isolation of the virus by cell culture are the diagnostic techniques used for this viral infection. There is no specific antiviral therapy available thus far. However, ribavirin has been approved by the World Health Organization for the treatment of CCHFV infection. Awareness campaigns regarding the risk factors and control measures can aid in reducing the spread of this disease to a greater extent, particularly in developing countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saadia Aslam
- National Centre of Excellence in Molecular Biology, University of the Punjab, Thokar Niaz Baig, Lahore 53700, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Shahzad Latif
- National Centre of Excellence in Molecular Biology, University of the Punjab, Thokar Niaz Baig, Lahore 53700, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Daud
- National Centre of Excellence in Molecular Biology, University of the Punjab, Thokar Niaz Baig, Lahore 53700, Pakistan
| | - Zia Ur Rahman
- National Centre of Excellence in Molecular Biology, University of the Punjab, Thokar Niaz Baig, Lahore 53700, Pakistan
| | - Bushra Tabassum
- National Centre of Excellence in Molecular Biology, University of the Punjab, Thokar Niaz Baig, Lahore 53700, Pakistan
| | | | - Anwar Khan
- National Centre of Excellence in Molecular Biology, University of the Punjab, Thokar Niaz Baig, Lahore 53700, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Tariq
- National Centre of Excellence in Molecular Biology, University of the Punjab, Thokar Niaz Baig, Lahore 53700, Pakistan
| | - Tayyab Husnain
- National Centre of Excellence in Molecular Biology, University of the Punjab, Thokar Niaz Baig, Lahore 53700, Pakistan
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Dugat T, Lagrée AC, Maillard R, Boulouis HJ, Haddad N. Opening the black box of Anaplasma phagocytophilum diversity: current situation and future perspectives. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2015; 5:61. [PMID: 26322277 PMCID: PMC4536383 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2015.00061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2015] [Accepted: 07/31/2015] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Anaplasma phagocytophilum is a zoonotic obligate intracellular bacterium known to be transmitted by ticks belonging to the Ixodes persulcatus complex. This bacterium can infect several mammalian species, and is known to cause diseases with variable symptoms in many domestic animals. Specifically, it is the causative agent of tick-borne fever (TBF), a disease of important economic impact in European domestic ruminants, and human granulocytic anaplasmosis (HGA), an emerging zoonotic disease in Asia, USA and Europe. A. phagocytophilum epidemiological cycles are complex and involve different ecotypes, vectors, and mammalian host species. Moreover, the epidemiology of A. phagocytophilum infection differs greatly between Europe and the USA. These different epidemiological contexts are associated with considerable variations in bacterial strains. Until recently, few A. phagocytophilum molecular typing tools were available, generating difficulties in completely elucidating the epidemiological cycles of this bacterium. Over the last few years, many A. phagocytophilum typing techniques have been developed, permitting in-depth epidemiological exploration. Here, we review the current knowledge and future perspectives regarding A. phagocytophilum epidemiology and phylogeny, and then focus on the molecular typing tools available for studying A. phagocytophilum genetic diversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thibaud Dugat
- Laboratoire de Santé Animale, UMR Biologie Moléculaire et Immunologie Parasitaires, Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire de L'alimentation, de L'environnement et du Travail, Université Paris-Est Paris, France
| | - Anne-Claire Lagrée
- UMR Biologie Moléculaire et Immunologie Parasitaires, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, Université Paris-Est Paris, France
| | - Renaud Maillard
- UMR Biologie Moléculaire et Immunologie Parasitaires, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, Université Paris-Est Paris, France ; Unité Pathologie des Ruminants, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire de Toulouse Toulouse, France
| | - Henri-Jean Boulouis
- UMR Biologie Moléculaire et Immunologie Parasitaires, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, Université Paris-Est Paris, France
| | - Nadia Haddad
- UMR Biologie Moléculaire et Immunologie Parasitaires, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, Université Paris-Est Paris, France
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Rizzoli A, Silaghi C, Obiegala A, Rudolf I, Hubálek Z, Földvári G, Plantard O, Vayssier-Taussat M, Bonnet S, Spitalská E, Kazimírová M. Ixodes ricinus and Its Transmitted Pathogens in Urban and Peri-Urban Areas in Europe: New Hazards and Relevance for Public Health. Front Public Health 2014; 2:251. [PMID: 25520947 PMCID: PMC4248671 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2014.00251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 285] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2014] [Accepted: 11/09/2014] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Tick-borne diseases represent major public and animal health issues worldwide. Ixodes ricinus, primarily associated with deciduous and mixed forests, is the principal vector of causative agents of viral, bacterial, and protozoan zoonotic diseases in Europe. Recently, abundant tick populations have been observed in European urban green areas, which are of public health relevance due to the exposure of humans and domesticated animals to potentially infected ticks. In urban habitats, small and medium-sized mammals, birds, companion animals (dogs and cats), and larger mammals (roe deer and wild boar) play a role in maintenance of tick populations and as reservoirs of tick-borne pathogens. Presence of ticks infected with tick-borne encephalitis virus and high prevalence of ticks infected with Borrelia burgdorferi s.l., causing Lyme borreliosis, have been reported from urbanized areas in Europe. Emerging pathogens, including bacteria of the order Rickettsiales (Anaplasma phagocytophilum, "Candidatus Neoehrlichia mikurensis," Rickettsia helvetica, and R. monacensis), Borrelia miyamotoi, and protozoans (Babesia divergens, B. venatorum, and B. microti) have also been detected in urban tick populations. Understanding the ecology of ticks and their associations with hosts in a European urbanized environment is crucial to quantify parameters necessary for risk pre-assessment and identification of public health strategies for control and prevention of tick-borne diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annapaola Rizzoli
- Fondazione Edmund Mach, Research and Innovation Centre, San Michele all'Adige , Trento , Italy
| | - Cornelia Silaghi
- Comparative Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität , Munich , Germany ; Vetsuisse-Faculty, Swiss National Centre for Vector Entomology, Institute for Parasitology, University of Zurich , Zürich , Switzerland
| | - Anna Obiegala
- Comparative Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität , Munich , Germany ; Institute of Animal Hygiene and Veterinary Public Health, University of Leipzig , Leipzig , Germany
| | - Ivo Rudolf
- Institute of Vertebrate Biology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, v.v.i. , Brno , Czech Republic
| | - Zdeněk Hubálek
- Institute of Vertebrate Biology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, v.v.i. , Brno , Czech Republic
| | - Gábor Földvári
- Department of Parasitology and Zoology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Szent István University , Budapest , Hungary
| | - Olivier Plantard
- INRA, UMR1300 BioEpAR , Nantes , France ; LUNAM Université, Oniris, Ecole nationale vétérinaire, agroalimentaire et de l'alimentation Nantes-Atlantique, UMR BioEpAR , Nantes , France
| | - Muriel Vayssier-Taussat
- USC BIPAR, INRA, ANSES - French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety , Maisons-Alfort , France
| | - Sarah Bonnet
- USC BIPAR, INRA, ANSES - French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety , Maisons-Alfort , France
| | - Eva Spitalská
- Institute of Virology, Slovak Academy of Sciences , Bratislava , Slovakia
| | - Mária Kazimírová
- Institute of Zoology, Slovak Academy of Sciences , Bratislava , Slovakia
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Ferreri L, Giacobini M, Bajardi P, Bertolotti L, Bolzoni L, Tagliapietra V, Rizzoli A, Rosà R. Pattern of tick aggregation on mice: larger than expected distribution tail enhances the spread of tick-borne pathogens. PLoS Comput Biol 2014; 10:e1003931. [PMID: 25393293 PMCID: PMC4230730 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1003931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2014] [Accepted: 09/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The spread of tick-borne pathogens represents an important threat to human and animal health in many parts of Eurasia. Here, we analysed a 9-year time series of Ixodes ricinus ticks feeding on Apodemus flavicollis mice (main reservoir-competent host for tick-borne encephalitis, TBE) sampled in Trentino (Northern Italy). The tail of the distribution of the number of ticks per host was fitted by three theoretical distributions: Negative Binomial (NB), Poisson-LogNormal (PoiLN), and Power-Law (PL). The fit with theoretical distributions indicated that the tail of the tick infestation pattern on mice is better described by the PL distribution. Moreover, we found that the tail of the distribution significantly changes with seasonal variations in host abundance. In order to investigate the effect of different tails of tick distribution on the invasion of a non-systemically transmitted pathogen, we simulated the transmission of a TBE-like virus between susceptible and infective ticks using a stochastic model. Model simulations indicated different outcomes of disease spreading when considering different distribution laws of ticks among hosts. Specifically, we found that the epidemic threshold and the prevalence equilibria obtained in epidemiological simulations with PL distribution are a good approximation of those observed in simulations feed by the empirical distribution. Moreover, we also found that the epidemic threshold for disease invasion was lower when considering the seasonal variation of tick aggregation. Our work analyses a 9-year time series of tick co-feeding patterns on Yellow-necked mice. Our data shows a strong heterogeneity, where most mice are parasitised by a small number of ticks while few host a much larger number. We describe the number of ticks per host by the commonly used Negative Binomial model, by the Poisson-LogNormal model, and we propose the Power Law model as an alternative. In our data, the last model seems to better describe the strong heterogeneity. In order to understand the epidemiological consequences, we use a computational model to reproduce a peculiar way of transmission, observed in some cases in nature, where uninfected ticks acquire an infection by feeding on a host where infected ticks are present, without any remarkable epidemiological involvement of the host itself. In particular, we are interested in determining the conditions leading to pathogen spread. We observe that the effective transmission of this infection in nature is highly dependent on the capability of the implemented model to describe the tick burden. In addition, we also consider seasonal changes in tick aggregation on mice, showing its influence on the spread of the infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Ferreri
- Computational Epidemiology Group, Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Torino, Torino, Italy
- Applied Research on Computational Complex Systems Group, Department of Computer Science, University of Torino, Torino, Italy
- * E-mail:
| | - Mario Giacobini
- Computational Epidemiology Group, Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Torino, Torino, Italy
- Applied Research on Computational Complex Systems Group, Department of Computer Science, University of Torino, Torino, Italy
- Complex Systems Unit, Molecular Biotechnology Centre, University of Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - Paolo Bajardi
- Computational Epidemiology Group, Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Torino, Torino, Italy
- Applied Research on Computational Complex Systems Group, Department of Computer Science, University of Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - Luigi Bertolotti
- Computational Epidemiology Group, Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - Luca Bolzoni
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna, Parma, Italy
- Dipartimento Biodiversità ed Ecologia Molecolare, Centro Ricerca e Innovazione, Fondazione Edmund Mach, San Michele all'Adige, Italy
| | - Valentina Tagliapietra
- Dipartimento Biodiversità ed Ecologia Molecolare, Centro Ricerca e Innovazione, Fondazione Edmund Mach, San Michele all'Adige, Italy
| | - Annapaola Rizzoli
- Dipartimento Biodiversità ed Ecologia Molecolare, Centro Ricerca e Innovazione, Fondazione Edmund Mach, San Michele all'Adige, Italy
| | - Roberto Rosà
- Dipartimento Biodiversità ed Ecologia Molecolare, Centro Ricerca e Innovazione, Fondazione Edmund Mach, San Michele all'Adige, Italy
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Abstract
This review examines the phenomenon of co-feeding transmission in tick-borne pathogens. This mode of transmission is critical for the epidemiology of several tick-borne viruses but its importance for Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, the causative agents of Lyme borreliosis, is still controversial. The molecular mechanisms and ecological factors that facilitate co-feeding transmission are therefore examined with particular emphasis on Borrelia pathogens. Comparison of climate, tick ecology and experimental infection work suggests that co-feeding transmission is more important in European than North American systems of Lyme borreliosis, which potentially explains why this topic has gained more traction in the former continent than the latter. While new theory shows that co-feeding transmission makes a modest contribution to Borrelia fitness, recent experimental work has revealed new ecological contexts where natural selection might favour co-feeding transmission. In particular, co-feeding transmission might confer a fitness advantage in the Darwinian competition among strains in mixed infections. Future studies should investigate the ecological conditions that favour the evolution of this fascinating mode of transmission in tick-borne pathogens.
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Slovák M, Kazimírová M, Siebenstichová M, Ustaníková K, Klempa B, Gritsun T, Gould EA, Nuttall PA. Survival dynamics of tick-borne encephalitis virus in Ixodes ricinus ticks. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2014; 5:962-9. [PMID: 25131151 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2014.07.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2014] [Revised: 07/18/2014] [Accepted: 07/22/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Biotic factors contributing to the survival of tick-borne viruses in nature are poorly understood. Using tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) and its principal European vector, Ixodes ricinus, we examined the relative roles of salivary gland infection, co-feeding transmission, and moulting in virus survival. Virus titres in the salivary glands increased after blood-feeding in a time- and dose-dependent manner. This was observed in ticks infected by inoculation but not in ticks infected by the natural route of co-feeding. Amplification of infection prevalence occurred via co-feeding. However, when larvae or nymphs subsequently moulted, the infection prevalence dramatically declined although this was not observed when ticks were infected by inoculation. Trans-stadial survival is a hitherto overlooked parameter that may contribute to the low incidence of TBEV infection in field-collected I. ricinus ticks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirko Slovák
- Institute of Zoology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Mária Kazimírová
- Institute of Zoology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | | | | | - Boris Klempa
- Institute of Virology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia; Institute of Virology, Charité Medical School, Berlin, Germany
| | - Tamara Gritsun
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Reading, Reading, United Kingdom
| | - Ernest A Gould
- Unité des Virus Emergents, Faculté de Médecine de Marseille, Aix-Marseille Universite, France; NERC Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Wallingford, Oxfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Patricia A Nuttall
- NERC Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Wallingford, Oxfordshire, United Kingdom; Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, United Kingdom.
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Mlera L, Melik W, Bloom ME. The role of viral persistence in flavivirus biology. Pathog Dis 2014; 71:137-63. [PMID: 24737600 PMCID: PMC4154581 DOI: 10.1111/2049-632x.12178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2014] [Revised: 04/08/2014] [Accepted: 04/09/2014] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
In nature, vector borne flaviviruses are persistently cycled between either the tick or mosquito vector and small mammals such as rodents, skunks, and swine. These viruses account for considerable human morbidity and mortality worldwide. Increasing and substantial evidence of viral persistence in humans, which includes the isolation of RNA by RT PCR and infectious virus by culture, continues to be reported. Viral persistence can also be established in vitro in various human, animal, arachnid, and insect cell lines in culture. Although some research has focused on the potential roles of defective virus particles, evasion of the immune response through the manipulation of autophagy and/or apoptosis, the precise mechanism of flavivirus persistence is still not well understood. We propose additional research for further understanding of how viral persistence is established in different systems. Avenues for additional studies include determining whether the multifunctional flavivirus protein NS5 has a role in viral persistence, the development of relevant animal models of viral persistence, and investigating the host responses that allow vector borne flavivirus replication without detrimental effects on infected cells. Such studies might shed more light on the viral–host relationships and could be used to unravel the mechanisms for establishment of persistence. Persistent infections by vector borne flaviviruses are an important, but inadequately studied topic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luwanika Mlera
- Rocky Mountain Laboratories, Laboratory of Virology, National Institutes of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
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Belikov SI, Kondratov IG, Potapova UV, Leonova GN. The relationship between the structure of the tick-borne encephalitis virus strains and their pathogenic properties. PLoS One 2014; 9:e94946. [PMID: 24740396 PMCID: PMC3989262 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0094946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2013] [Accepted: 03/20/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) is transmitted to vertebrates by taiga or forest ticks through bites, inducing disease of variable severity. The reasons underlying these differences in the severity of the disease are unknown. In order to identify genetic factors affecting the pathogenicity of virus strains, we have sequenced and compared the complete genomes of 34 Far-Eastern subtype (FE) TBEV strains isolated from patients with different disease severity (Primorye, the Russian Far East). We analyzed the complete genomes of 11 human pathogenic strains isolated from the brains of dead patients with the encephalitic form of the disease (Efd), 4 strains from the blood of patients with the febrile form of TBE (Ffd), and 19 strains from patients with the subclinical form of TBE (Sfd). On the phylogenetic tree, pathogenic Efd strains formed two clusters containing the prototype strains, Senzhang and Sofjin, respectively. Sfd strains formed a third separate cluster, including the Oshima strain. The strains that caused the febrile form of the disease did not form a separate cluster. In the viral proteins, we found 198 positions with at least one amino acid residue substitution, of which only 17 amino acid residue substitutions were correlated with the variable pathogenicity of these strains in humans and they authentically differed between the groups. We considered the role of each amino acid substitution and assumed that the deletion of 111 amino acids in the capsid protein in combination with the amino acid substitutions R16K and S45F in the NS3 protease may affect the budding process of viral particles. These changes may be the major reason for the diminished pathogenicity of TBEV strains. We recommend Sfd strains for testing as attenuation vaccine candidates.
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MESH Headings
- 3' Untranslated Regions/genetics
- 5' Untranslated Regions/genetics
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Amino Acid Substitution
- Animals
- Base Sequence
- Capsid Proteins/chemistry
- Capsid Proteins/genetics
- China
- Encephalitis Viruses, Tick-Borne/classification
- Encephalitis Viruses, Tick-Borne/genetics
- Encephalitis Viruses, Tick-Borne/pathogenicity
- Encephalitis, Tick-Borne/blood
- Encephalitis, Tick-Borne/virology
- Genetic Structures
- Genome, Viral/genetics
- Geography
- Humans
- Models, Molecular
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Nucleic Acid Conformation
- Phylogeny
- Protein Structure, Tertiary
- RNA Helicases/chemistry
- RNA Helicases/genetics
- RNA, Viral/chemistry
- RNA, Viral/genetics
- Russia
- Sequence Homology, Amino Acid
- Serine Endopeptidases/chemistry
- Serine Endopeptidases/genetics
- Viral Nonstructural Proteins/chemistry
- Viral Nonstructural Proteins/genetics
- Virulence/genetics
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergei I. Belikov
- Limnological Institute, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Irkutsk, Russia
| | - Ilya G. Kondratov
- Limnological Institute, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Irkutsk, Russia
| | - Ulyana V. Potapova
- Limnological Institute, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Irkutsk, Russia
| | - Galina N. Leonova
- Research Institute of Epidemiology and Microbiology, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, Vladivostok, Russia
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48
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Pettersson JHO, Golovljova I, Vene S, Jaenson TGT. Prevalence of tick-borne encephalitis virus in Ixodes ricinus ticks in northern Europe with particular reference to Southern Sweden. Parasit Vectors 2014; 7:102. [PMID: 24618209 PMCID: PMC4007564 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-7-102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2014] [Accepted: 02/16/2014] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background In northern Europe, the tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) of the European subtype is usually transmitted to humans by the common tick Ixodes ricinus. The aims of the present study are (i) to obtain up-to-date information on the TBEV prevalence in host-seeking I. ricinus in southern and central Sweden; (ii) to compile and review all relevant published records on the prevalence of TBEV in ticks in northern Europe; and (iii) to analyse and try to explain how the TBE virus can be maintained in natural foci despite an apparently low TBEV infection prevalence in the vector population. Methods To estimate the mean minimum infection rate (MIR) of TBEV in I. ricinus in northern Europe (i.e. Denmark, Norway, Sweden and Finland) we reviewed all published TBEV prevalence data for host-seeking I. ricinus collected during 1958–2011. Moreover, we collected 2,074 nymphs and 906 adults of I. ricinus from 29 localities in Sweden during 2008. These ticks were screened for TBEV by RT-PCR. Results The MIR for TBEV in nymphal and adult I. ricinus was 0.28% for northern Europe and 0.23% for southern Sweden. The infection prevalence of TBEV was significantly lower in nymphs (0.10%) than in adult ticks (0.55%). At a well-known TBEV-endemic locality, Torö island south-east of Stockholm, the TBEV prevalence (MIR) was 0.51% in nymphs and 4.48% in adults of I. ricinus. Conclusions If the ratio of nymphs to adult ticks in the TBEV-analysed sample differs from that in the I. ricinus population in the field, the MIR obtained will not necessarily reflect the TBEV prevalence in the field. The relatively low TBEV prevalence in the potential vector population recorded in most studies may partly be due to: (i) inclusion of uninfected ticks from the ‘uninfected areas’ surrounding the TBEV endemic foci; (ii) inclusion of an unrepresentative, too large proportion of immature ticks, compared to adult ticks, in the analysed tick pools; and (iii) shortcomings in the laboratory techniques used to detect the virus that may be present in a very low concentration or undetectable state in ticks which have not recently fed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Thomas G T Jaenson
- Medical Entomology Unit, Subdepartment of Systematic Biology, Department of Organismal Biology, Evolutionary Biology Centre, Uppsala University, Norbyvägen 18d, SE-752 36, Uppsala, Sweden.
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Rizzoli A, Silaghi C, Obiegala A, Rudolf I, Hubálek Z, Földvári G, Plantard O, Vayssier-Taussat M, Bonnet S, Spitalská E, Kazimírová M. Ixodes ricinus and Its Transmitted Pathogens in Urban and Peri-Urban Areas in Europe: New Hazards and Relevance for Public Health. Front Public Health 2014. [PMID: 25520947 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2014.00251.pmid:25520947;pmcid:pmc4248671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Tick-borne diseases represent major public and animal health issues worldwide. Ixodes ricinus, primarily associated with deciduous and mixed forests, is the principal vector of causative agents of viral, bacterial, and protozoan zoonotic diseases in Europe. Recently, abundant tick populations have been observed in European urban green areas, which are of public health relevance due to the exposure of humans and domesticated animals to potentially infected ticks. In urban habitats, small and medium-sized mammals, birds, companion animals (dogs and cats), and larger mammals (roe deer and wild boar) play a role in maintenance of tick populations and as reservoirs of tick-borne pathogens. Presence of ticks infected with tick-borne encephalitis virus and high prevalence of ticks infected with Borrelia burgdorferi s.l., causing Lyme borreliosis, have been reported from urbanized areas in Europe. Emerging pathogens, including bacteria of the order Rickettsiales (Anaplasma phagocytophilum, "Candidatus Neoehrlichia mikurensis," Rickettsia helvetica, and R. monacensis), Borrelia miyamotoi, and protozoans (Babesia divergens, B. venatorum, and B. microti) have also been detected in urban tick populations. Understanding the ecology of ticks and their associations with hosts in a European urbanized environment is crucial to quantify parameters necessary for risk pre-assessment and identification of public health strategies for control and prevention of tick-borne diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annapaola Rizzoli
- Fondazione Edmund Mach, Research and Innovation Centre, San Michele all'Adige , Trento , Italy
| | - Cornelia Silaghi
- Comparative Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität , Munich , Germany ; Vetsuisse-Faculty, Swiss National Centre for Vector Entomology, Institute for Parasitology, University of Zurich , Zürich , Switzerland
| | - Anna Obiegala
- Comparative Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität , Munich , Germany ; Institute of Animal Hygiene and Veterinary Public Health, University of Leipzig , Leipzig , Germany
| | - Ivo Rudolf
- Institute of Vertebrate Biology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, v.v.i. , Brno , Czech Republic
| | - Zdeněk Hubálek
- Institute of Vertebrate Biology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, v.v.i. , Brno , Czech Republic
| | - Gábor Földvári
- Department of Parasitology and Zoology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Szent István University , Budapest , Hungary
| | - Olivier Plantard
- INRA, UMR1300 BioEpAR , Nantes , France ; LUNAM Université, Oniris, Ecole nationale vétérinaire, agroalimentaire et de l'alimentation Nantes-Atlantique, UMR BioEpAR , Nantes , France
| | - Muriel Vayssier-Taussat
- USC BIPAR, INRA, ANSES - French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety , Maisons-Alfort , France
| | - Sarah Bonnet
- USC BIPAR, INRA, ANSES - French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety , Maisons-Alfort , France
| | - Eva Spitalská
- Institute of Virology, Slovak Academy of Sciences , Bratislava , Slovakia
| | - Mária Kazimírová
- Institute of Zoology, Slovak Academy of Sciences , Bratislava , Slovakia
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50
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Bente DA, Forrester NL, Watts DM, McAuley AJ, Whitehouse CA, Bray M. Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever: history, epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical syndrome and genetic diversity. Antiviral Res 2013; 100:159-89. [PMID: 23906741 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2013.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 520] [Impact Index Per Article: 47.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2013] [Revised: 07/05/2013] [Accepted: 07/09/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF) is the most important tick-borne viral disease of humans, causing sporadic cases or outbreaks of severe illness across a huge geographic area, from western China to the Middle East and southeastern Europe and throughout most of Africa. CCHFV is maintained in vertical and horizontal transmission cycles involving ixodid ticks and a variety of wild and domestic vertebrates, which do not show signs of illness. The virus circulates in a number of tick genera, but Hyalomma ticks are the principal source of human infection, probably because both immature and adult forms actively seek hosts for the blood meals required at each stage of maturation. CCHF occurs most frequently among agricultural workers following the bite of an infected tick, and to a lesser extent among slaughterhouse workers exposed to the blood and tissues of infected livestock and medical personnel through contact with the body fluids of infected patients. CCHFV is the most genetically diverse of the arboviruses, with nucleotide sequence differences among isolates ranging from 20% for the viral S segment to 31% for the M segment. Viruses with diverse sequences can be found within the same geographic area, while closely related viruses have been isolated in far distant regions, suggesting that widespread dispersion of CCHFV has occurred at times in the past, possibly by ticks carried on migratory birds or through the international livestock trade. Reassortment among genome segments during co-infection of ticks or vertebrates appears to have played an important role in generating diversity, and represents a potential future source of novel viruses. In this article, we first review current knowledge of CCHFV, summarizing its molecular biology, maintenance and transmission, epidemiology and geographic range. We also include an extensive discussion of CCHFV genetic diversity, including maps of the range of the virus with superimposed phylogenetic trees. We then review the features of CCHF, including the clinical syndrome, diagnosis, treatment, pathogenesis, vaccine development and laboratory animal models of CCHF. The paper ends with a discussion of the possible future geographic range of the virus. For the benefit of researchers, we include a Supplementary Table listing all published reports of CCHF cases and outbreaks in the English-language literature, plus some principal articles in other languages, with total case numbers, case fatality rates and all CCHFV strains on GenBank.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis A Bente
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, United States.
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