Preclinical Development of PNT6555, a Boronic Acid-Based, Fibroblast Activation Protein-α (FAP)-Targeted Radiotheranostic for Imaging and Treatment of FAP-Positive Tumors

The overexpression of fibroblast activation protein-α (FAP) in solid cancers relative to levels in normal tissues has led to its recognition as a target for delivering agents directly to tumors. Radiolabeled quinoline-based FAP ligands have established clinical feasibility for tumor imaging, but their therapeutic potential is limited due to suboptimal tumor retention, which has prompted the search for alternative pharmacophores. One such pharmacophore is the boronic acid derivative N-(pyridine-4-carbonyl)-d-Ala-boroPro, a potent and selective FAP inhibitor (FAPI). In this study, the diagnostic and therapeutic (theranostic) potential of N-(pyridine-4-carbonyl)-d-Ala-boroPro-based metal-chelating DOTA-FAPIs was evaluated. Methods: Three DOTA-FAPIs, PNT6555, PNT6952, and PNT6522, were synthesized and characterized with respect to potency and selectivity toward soluble and cell membrane FAP; cellular uptake of the Lu-chelated analogs; biodistribution and pharmacokinetics in mice xenografted with human embryonic kidney cell-derived tumors expressing mouse FAP; the diagnostic potential of 68Ga-chelated DOTA-FAPIs by direct organ assay and small-animal PET; the antitumor activity of 177Lu-, 225Ac-, or 161Tb-chelated analogs using human embryonic kidney cell-derived tumors expressing mouse FAP; and the tumor-selective delivery of 177Lu-chelated DOTA-FAPIs via direct organ assay and SPECT. Results: DOTA-FAPIs and their natGa and natLu chelates exhibited potent inhibition of human and mouse sources of FAP and greatly reduced activity toward closely related prolyl endopeptidase and dipeptidyl peptidase 4. 68Ga-PNT6555 and 68Ga-PNT6952 showed rapid renal clearance and continuous accumulation in tumors, resulting in tumor-selective exposure at 60 min after administration. 177Lu-PNT6555 was distinguished from 177Lu-PNT6952 and 177Lu-PNT6522 by significantly higher tumor accumulation over 168 h. In therapeutic studies, all 3 177Lu-DOTA-FAPIs exhibited significant antitumor activity at well-tolerated doses, with 177Lu-PNT6555 producing the greatest tumor growth delay and animal survival. 225Ac-PNT6555 and 161Tb-PNT6555 were similarly efficacious, producing 80% and 100% survival at optimal doses, respectively. Conclusion: PNT6555 has potential for clinical translation as a theranostic agent in FAP-positive cancer.

Abstract 1815: AVA6000, a novel Precision medicine, targeted to the tumor microenvironment via Fibroblast Activation Protein (FAP) mediated cleavage

AVA6000 is a therapeutic product based on proprietary pre|CISION™ technology which incorporates a substrate that is sensitive to cleavage by FAP. The pre|CISION™ substrate can be utilized in a drug conjugate linker or to generate chemotherapy prodrugs that are only activated in the tumor microenvironment. AVA6000 consists of a doxorubicin molecule covalently bonded to a dipeptide (pyridine-4-carbonyl)-D-Ala-L-Pro), which is designed to be susceptible to hydrolysis by Fibroblast Activation Protein α (FAP) but is resistant to hydrolysis by both closely related and wider mammalian peptidases. FAP, a post-prolyl endopeptidase, is overexpressed on the surface of activated fibroblastic cells which are abundant in the supporting stroma of over 90% of malignant epithelial cancers, as well as in bone and soft tissue sarcoma. While FAP is also present both in normal tissues and as a soluble enzyme in plasma, levels are significantly lower than those present in malignant epithelial cancers. Consequently, AVA6000 has the potential to deliver doxorubicin directly to the tumor microenvironment, while exposing the patient to a lesser degree of doxorubicin-associated toxicities. The primary mechanism of action of doxorubicin is thought to involve stabilisation of a topoisomerase-II-DNA cleavable complex through non-specific DNA-intercalation. The non-specific DNA-intercalation causes a number of downstream effects, which may ultimately result in apoptotic cell death. Although doxorubicin has been one of the most effective and widely used chemotherapeutic agents for the treatment of various solid malignancies for over 40 years, its clinical utility is limited by dose-limiting toxicities, including myelosuppression and cardiotoxicity. The unique FAP specificity of the N-(pyridine-4-carbonyl)-D-Ala-L-Pro leaving group conjugated to doxorubicin in AVA6000 is supported by the absence of cleavage of the fluorogenic analogue, 3114-AMC, in FAP gene-knockout mice (Fap-/-). In vitro cytotoxicity assessments involving human tumor cell lines showed that AVA6000 was between 80-fold to 4,000-fold less cytotoxic compared to doxorubicin. In several in vivo efficacy studies in tumours with high FAP levels, AVA6000 significantly decreased tumor volume and increased survival in a dose-dependent manner. In a PDX model of osteosarcoma, AVA6000 significantly decreased tumor volume while doxorubicin had no significant effect. The efficacy and tolerability profile of AVA6000 strongly support its clinical development, and a Phase I trial in patients with locally advanced or metastatic selected solid tumours in underway.

Citation Format: Fiona McLaughlin, Sarah E. Poplawski, David G. Sanford, Andrew Saunders, Jack H. Lai, Matthew Vincent, William W. Bachovchin, Neil Bell. AVA6000, a novel Precision medicine, targeted to the tumor microenvironment via Fibroblast Activation Protein (FAP) mediated cleavage [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2022; 2022 Apr 8-13. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2022;82(12_Suppl):Abstract nr 1815.

Fibroblast activation protein is dispensable for control of glucose homeostasis and body weight in mice

Objective

Fibroblast Activation Protein (FAP), an enzyme structurally related to dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4), has garnered interest as a potential metabolic drug target due to its ability to cleave and inactivate FGF-21 as well as other peptide substrates. Here we investigated the metabolic importance of FAP for control of body weight and glucose homeostasis in regular chow-fed and high fat diet-fed mice.

Methods

FAP enzyme activity was transiently attenuated using a highly-specific inhibitor CPD60 and permanently ablated by genetic inactivation of the mouse Fap gene. We also assessed the FAP-dependence of CPD60 and talabostat (Val-boroPro), a chemical inhibitor reportedly targeting both FAP and dipeptidyl peptidase-4

Results

CPD60 robustly inhibited plasma FAP activity with no effect on DPP-4 activity. Fap gene disruption was confirmed by assessment of genomic DNA, and loss of FAP enzyme activity in plasma and tissues. CPD60 did not improve lipid tolerance but modestly improved acute oral and intraperitoneal glucose tolerance in a FAP-dependent manner. Genetic inactivation of Fap did not improve glucose or lipid tolerance nor confer resistance to weight gain in male or female Fap^−/− mice fed regular chow or high-fat diets. Moreover, talabostat markedly improved glucose homeostasis in a FAP- and FGF-21-independent, DPP-4 dependent manner.

Conclusion

Although pharmacological FAP inhibition improves glucose tolerance, the absence of a metabolic phenotype in Fap^−/−mice suggest that endogenous FAP is dispensable for the regulation of murine glucose homeostasis and body weight. These findings highlight the importance of characterizing the specificity and actions of FAP inhibitors in different species and raise important questions about the feasibility of mouse models for targeting FAP as a treatment for diabetes and related metabolic disorders.

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Acute inhibition of FAP enzyme activity improves glucose tolerance in mice.

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Fap knockout mice exhibit normal glucose and lipid tolerance.

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Fap knockout mice do not resist obesity after high fat feeding.

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Talabostat robustly lowers glucose in a FAP and FGF21-independent manner.

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Talabostat, but not CPD60, requires DPP4 to exert its full metabolic activity.

An Atypical Parvovirus Drives Chronic Tubulointerstitial Nephropathy and Kidney Fibrosis

The occurrence of a spontaneous nephropathy with intranuclear inclusions in laboratory mice has puzzled pathologists for over 4 decades, because its etiology remains elusive. The condition is more severe in immunodeficient animals, suggesting an infectious cause. Using metagenomics, we identify the causative agent as an atypical virus, termed "mouse kidney parvovirus" (MKPV), belonging to a divergent genus of Parvoviridae. MKPV was identified in animal facilities in Australia and North America, is transmitted via a fecal-oral or urinary-oral route, and is controlled by the adaptive immune system. Detailed analysis of the clinical course and histopathological features demonstrated a stepwise progression of pathology ranging from sporadic tubular inclusions to tubular degeneration and interstitial fibrosis and culminating in renal failure. In summary, we identify a widely distributed pathogen in laboratory mice and establish MKPV-induced nephropathy as a new tool for elucidating mechanisms of tubulointerstitial fibrosis that shares molecular features with chronic kidney disease in humans.

Circulating fibroblast activation protein and dipeptidyl peptidase 4 in rheumatoid arthritis and systemic sclerosis

AIM

To quantify circulating fibroblast activation protein (cFAP) and dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (cDPP4) protease activities in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA), systemic sclerosis (SSc), and a control group with mechanical back pain and to correlate plasma levels with disease characteristics.

METHODS

Plasma was collected from patients with RA (n = 73), SSc (n = 37) and control subjects (n = 26). DPP4 and FAP were quantified using specific enzyme activity assays.

RESULTS

Median cDPP4 was significantly lower in the RA group (P = 0.02), and SSc group (P = 0.002) compared with controls. There were no significant differences in median cFAP between the three groups. DPP4 and FAP demonstrated a negative correlation with inflammatory markers and duration of disease. There were no associations with disease subtypes in RA, including seropositive and erosive disease. Decreased cDPP4 was found in SSc patients with myositis. Plasma FAP was lower in RA patients receiving prednisone (P = 0.001) or leflunomide (P = 0.04), but higher with biologic agents (P = 0.01). RA patients receiving leflunomide also had decreased cDPP4 (P = 0.014). SSc patients receiving prednisone (P = 0.02) had lower cDPP4 but there was no association with cFAP.

CONCLUSIONS

No association was found between cFAP and RA or SSc. Plasma DPP4 was decreased in RA and SSc when compared with controls. cDPP4 and cFAP correlated negatively with inflammatory markers and there were no significant correlations with disease characteristics in this RA cohort.

DPP8 and DPP9 inhibition induces pro-caspase-1-dependent monocyte and macrophage pyroptosis

Val-boroPro (Talabostat, PT-100), a nonselective inhibitor of post-proline cleaving serine proteases, stimulates mammalian immune systems through an unknown mechanism of action. Despite this lack of mechanistic understanding, Val-boroPro has attracted substantial interest as a potential anticancer agent, reaching phase 3 trials in humans. Here we show that Val-boroPro stimulates the immune system by triggering a proinflammatory form of cell death in monocytes and macrophages known as pyroptosis. We demonstrate that the inhibition of two serine proteases, DPP8 and DPP9, activates the pro-protein form of caspase-1 independent of the inflammasome adaptor ASC. Activated pro-caspase-1 does not efficiently process itself or IL-1β but does cleave and activate gasdermin D to induce pyroptosis. Mice lacking caspase-1 do not show immune stimulation after treatment with Val-boroPro. Our data identify what is to our knowledge the first small molecule that induces pyroptosis and reveals a new checkpoint that controls the activation of the innate immune system.

Human FGF-21 Is a Substrate of Fibroblast Activation Protein

FGF-21 is a key regulator of metabolism and potential drug candidate for the treatment of type II diabetes and other metabolic disorders. However, the half-life of active, circulating, human FGF-21 has recently been shown to be limited in mice and monkeys by a proteolytic cleavage between P171 and S172. Here, we show that fibroblast activation protein is the enzyme responsible for this proteolysis by demonstrating that purified FAP cleaves human FGF-21 at this site in vitro, and that an FAP-specific inhibitor, ARI-3099, blocks the activity in mouse, monkey and human plasma and prolongs the half-life of circulating human FGF-21 in mice. Mouse FGF-21, however, lacks the FAP cleavage site and is not cleaved by FAP. These findings indicate FAP may function in the regulation of metabolism and that FAP inhibitors may prove useful in the treatment of diabetes and metabolic disorders in humans, but pre-clinical proof of concept studies in rodents will be problematic.

Neuropeptide Y is a physiological substrate of fibroblast activation protein: Enzyme kinetics in blood plasma and expression of Y2R and Y5R in human liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma

Fibroblast activation protein (FAP) is a dipeptidyl peptidase (DPP) and endopeptidase that is weakly expressed in normal adult human tissues but is greatly up-regulated in activated mesenchymal cells of tumors and chronically injured tissue. The identities and locations of target substrates of FAP are poorly defined, in contrast to the related protease DPP4. This study is the first to characterize the physiological substrate repertoire of the DPP activity of endogenous FAP present in plasma. Four substrates, neuropeptide Y (NPY), peptide YY, B-type natriuretic peptide and substance P, were analyzed by mass spectrometry following proteolysis in human or mouse plasma, and by in vivo localization in human liver tissues with cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). NPY was the most efficiently cleaved substrate of both human and mouse FAP, whereas all four peptides were efficiently cleaved by endogenous DPP4, indicating that the in vivo degradomes of FAP and DPP4 differ. All detectable DPP-specific proteolysis and C-terminal processing of these neuropeptides was attributable to FAP and DPP4, and plasma kallikrein, respectively, highlighting their combined physiological significance in the regulation of these neuropeptides. In cirrhotic liver and HCC, NPY and its receptor Y2R, but not Y5R, were increased in hepatocytes near the parenchymal-stromal interface where there is an opportunity to interact with FAP expressed on nearby activated mesenchymal cells in the stroma. These novel findings provide insights into the substrate specificity of FAP, which differs greatly from DPP4, and reveal a potential function for FAP in neuropeptide regulation within liver and cancer biology.

Fibroblast Activation Protein (FAP) Accelerates Collagen Degradation and Clearance from Lungs in Mice

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis is a disease characterized by progressive, unrelenting lung scarring, with death from respiratory failure within 2-4 years unless lung transplantation is performed. New effective therapies are clearly needed. Fibroblast activation protein (FAP) is a cell surface-associated serine protease up-regulated in the lungs of patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis as well as in wound healing and cancer. We postulate that FAP is not only a marker of disease but influences the development of pulmonary fibrosis after lung injury. In two different models of pulmonary fibrosis, intratracheal bleomycin instillation and thoracic irradiation, we find increased mortality and increased lung fibrosis in FAP-deficient mice compared with wild-type mice. Lung extracellular matrix analysis reveals accumulation of intermediate-sized collagen fragments in FAP-deficient mouse lungs, consistent within vitrostudies showing that FAP mediates ordered proteolytic processing of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-derived collagen cleavage products. FAP-mediated collagen processing leads to increased collagen internalization without altering expression of the endocytic collagen receptor, Endo180. Pharmacologic FAP inhibition decreases collagen internalization as expected. Conversely, restoration of FAP expression in the lungs of FAP-deficient mice decreases lung hydroxyproline content after intratracheal bleomycin to levels comparable with that of wild-type controls. Our findings indicate that FAP participates directly, in concert with MMPs, in collagen catabolism and clearance and is an important factor in resolving scar after injury and restoring lung homeostasis. Our study identifies FAP as a novel endogenous regulator of fibrosis and is the first to show FAP's protective effects in the lung.

GLP-1(32-36)amide Pentapeptide Increases Basal Energy Expenditure and Inhibits Weight Gain in Obese Mice

The prevalence of obesity-related diabetes is increasing worldwide. Here we report the identification of a pentapeptide, GLP-1(32-36)amide (LVKGRamide), derived from the glucoincretin hormone GLP-1, that increases basal energy expenditure and curtails the development of obesity, insulin resistance, diabetes, and hepatic steatosis in diet-induced obese mice. The pentapeptide inhibited weight gain, reduced fat mass without change in energy intake, and increased basal energy expenditure independent of physical activity. Analyses of tissues from peptide-treated mice reveal increased expression of UCP-1 and UCP-3 in brown adipose tissue and increased UCP-3 and inhibition of acetyl-CoA carboxylase in skeletal muscle, findings consistent with increased fatty acid oxidation and thermogenesis. In palmitate-treated C2C12 skeletal myotubes, GLP-1(32-36)amide activated AMPK and inhibited acetyl-CoA carboxylase, suggesting activation of fat metabolism in response to energy depletion. By mass spectroscopy, the pentapeptide is rapidly formed from GLP-1(9-36)amide, the major form of GLP-1 in the circulation of mice. These findings suggest that the reported insulin-like actions of GLP-1 receptor agonists that occur independently of the GLP-1 receptor might be mediated by the pentapeptide, and the previously reported nonapeptide (FIAWLVKGRamide). We propose that by increasing basal energy expenditure, GLP-1(32-36)amide might be a useful treatment for human obesity and associated metabolic disorders.

Lower serum fibroblast activation protein shows promise in the exclusion of clinically significant liver fibrosis due to non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in diabetes and obesity

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is common in diabetes and obesity but few have clinically significant liver fibrosis. Improved risk-assessment is needed as the commonly used clinical-risk algorithm, the NAFLD fibrosis score (NFS), is often inconclusive.

AIMS

To determine whether circulating fibroblast activation protein (cFAP), which is elevated in cirrhosis, has value in excluding significant fibrosis, particularly combined with NFS.

METHODS

cFAP was measured in 106 with type 2 diabetes who had transient elastography (Cohort 1) and 146 with morbid obesity who had liver biopsy (Cohort 2).

RESULTS

In Cohort 1, cFAP (per SD) independently associated with median liver stiffness (LSM) ≥ 10.3 kPa with OR of 2.0 (95% CI 1.2-3.4), p=0.006. There was 0.12 OR (95% CI 0.03-0.61) of LSM ≥ 10.3 kPa for those in the lowest compared with the highest FAP tertile (p=0.010). FAP levels below 730 pmol AMC/min/mL had 95% NPV for LSM ≥ 10.3 kPa and reclassified 41% of 64 subjects from NFS 'indeterminate-risk' to 'low-risk'. In Cohort 2, cFAP (per SD), associated with 1.7 fold (95% CI 1.1-2.8) increased odds of significant fibrosis (F ≥ 2), p=0.021, and low cFAP reclassified 49% of 73 subjects from 'indeterminate-risk' to 'low-risk'.

CONCLUSIONS

Lower cFAP, when combined with NFS, may have clinical utility in excluding significant fibrosis in diabetes and obesity.

A high-throughput, multiplexed assay for superfamily-wide profiling of enzyme activity

The selectivity of an enzyme inhibitor is a key determinant of its usefulness as a tool compound or its safety as a drug. Yet selectivity is never assessed comprehensively in the early stages of the drug discovery process, and only rarely in the later stages, because technical limitations prohibit doing otherwise. Here, we report EnPlex, an efficient, high-throughput method for simultaneously assessing inhibitor potency and specificity, and pilot its application to 96 serine hydrolases. EnPlex analysis of widely used serine hydrolase inhibitors revealed numerous previously unrecognized off-target interactions, some of which may help to explain previously confounding adverse effects. In addition, EnPlex screening of a hydrolase-directed library of boronic acid- and nitrile-containing compounds provided structure-activity relationships in both potency and selectivity dimensions from which lead candidates could be more effectively prioritized. Follow-up of a series of dipeptidyl peptidase 4 inhibitors showed that EnPlex indeed predicted efficacy and safety in animal models. These results demonstrate the feasibility and value of high-throughput, superfamily-wide selectivity profiling and suggest that such profiling can be incorporated into the earliest stages of drug discovery.

Quantitation of fibroblast activation protein (FAP)-specific protease activity in mouse, baboon and human fluids and organs

The protease fibroblast activation protein (FAP) is a specific marker of activated mesenchymal cells in tumour stroma and fibrotic liver. A specific, reliable FAP enzyme assay has been lacking. FAP's unique and restricted cleavage of the post proline bond was exploited to generate a new specific substrate to quantify FAP enzyme activity. This sensitive assay detected no FAP activity in any tissue or fluid of FAP gene knockout mice, thus confirming assay specificity. Circulating FAP activity was ∼20- and 1.3-fold less in baboon than in mouse and human plasma, respectively. Serum and plasma contained comparable FAP activity. In mice, the highest levels of FAP activity were in uterus, pancreas, submaxillary gland and skin, whereas the lowest levels were in brain, prostate, leukocytes and testis. Baboon organs high in FAP activity included skin, epididymis, bladder, colon, adipose tissue, nerve and tongue. FAP activity was greatly elevated in tumours and associated lymph nodes and in fungal-infected skin of unhealthy baboons. FAP activity was 14- to 18-fold greater in cirrhotic than in non-diseased human liver, and circulating FAP activity was almost doubled in alcoholic cirrhosis. Parallel DPP4 measurements concorded with the literature, except for the novel finding of high DPP4 activity in bile. The new FAP enzyme assay is the first to be thoroughly characterised and shows that FAP activity is measurable in most organs and at high levels in some. This new assay is a robust tool for specific quantitation of FAP enzyme activity in both preclinical and clinical samples, particularly liver fibrosis.

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A novel synthetic fluorogenic substrate is proven to be FAP-specific.

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Mice have higher levels of circulating FAP activity compared to baboons or humans.

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No FAP activity was detected in urine or bile but bile contained high DPP4 activity.

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FAP activity is greatest in pancreas, uterus, salivary gland, skin and lymph node.

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FAP activity and protein is elevated in both serum and liver in human liver disease.

The high-fat high-fructose hamster as an animal model for niacin's biological activities in humans

OBJECTIVE

Niacin has been used for more than 50 years to treat dyslipidemia, yet the mechanisms underlying its lipid-modifying effects remain unknown, a situation stemming at least in part from a lack of validated animal models. The objective of this study was to determine if the dyslipidemic hamster could serve as such a model.

MATERIALS/METHODS

Dyslipidemia was induced in Golden Syrian hamsters by feeding them a high-fat, high-cholesterol, and high-fructose (HF/HF) diet. The effect of high-dose niacin treatment for 18 days and 28 days on plasma lipid levels and gene expression was measured.

RESULTS

Niacin treatment produced significant decreases in plasma total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), triglycerides (TG), and free fatty acids (FFA), but had no measureable effect on high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) in the dyslipidemic hamster. Niacin treatment also produced significant increases in hepatic adenosine ATP-Binding Cassette A1 (ABCA1) mRNA, ABCA1 protein, apolipoprotein A-I (Apo A-I) mRNA, and adipose adiponectin mRNA in these animals.

CONCLUSIONS

With the exception of HDL-C, the lipid effects of niacin treatment in the dyslipidemic hamster closely parallel those observed in humans. Moreover, the effects of niacin treatment on gene expression of hepatic proteins related to HDL metabolism are similar to those observed in human cells in culture. The HF/HF-fed hamster could therefore serve as an animal model for niacin's lowering of proatherogenic lipids and mechanisms of action relative to lipid metabolism.

Identification of selective and potent inhibitors of fibroblast activation protein and prolyl oligopeptidase

Fibroblast activation protein (FAP) is a serine protease selectively expressed on reactive stromal fibroblasts of epithelial carcinomas. It is widely believed to play a role in tumor invasion and metastasis and therefore to represent a potential new drug target for cancer. Investigation into its biological function, however, has been hampered by the current unavailability of selective inhibitors. The challenge has been in identifying inhibitors that are selective for FAP over both the dipeptidyl peptidases (DPPs), with which it shares exopeptidase specificity, and prolyl oligopeptidase (PREP), with which it shares endopeptidase specificity. Here, we report the first potent FAP inhibitor with selectivity over both the DPPs and PREP, N-(pyridine-4-carbonyl)-d-Ala-boroPro (ARI-3099, 6). We also report a similarly potent and selective PREP inhibitor, N-(pyridine-3-carbonyl)-Val-boroPro (ARI-3531, 22). Both are boronic acid based inhibitors, demonstrating that high selectivity can be achieved using this electrophile. The inhibitors are stable, easy to synthesize, and should prove to be useful in helping to elucidate the biological functions of these two unique and interesting enzymes, as well as their potential as drug targets.

4-Substituted boro-proline dipeptides: synthesis, characterization, and dipeptidyl peptidase IV, 8, and 9 activities

The boroProline-based dipeptidyl boronic acids were among the first DPP-IV inhibitors identified, and remain the most potent known. We introduced various substitutions at the 4-position of the boroProline ring regioselectively and stereoselectively, and incorporated these aminoboronic acids into a series of 4-substituted boroPro-based dipeptides. Among these dipeptidyl boronic acids, Arg-(4S)-boroHyp (4q) was the most potent inhibitor of DPP-IV, DPP8 and DPP9, while (4S)-Hyp-(4R)-boroHyp (4o) exhibited the most selectivity for DPP-IV over DPP8 and DPP9.

Reverse D4F, an apolipoprotein-AI mimetic peptide, inhibits atherosclerosis in ApoE-null mice

OBJECTIVE

Synthetic class A amphipathic helical peptide analogs of apolipoprotein-AI (apoAI; with varied phenylalanine residues) are emerging therapeutic approaches under investigation for atherosclerosis. Utilizing retroinverso sequencing, we designed reverse-D4F (Rev-D4F) peptide with 18 d-amino acids containing 4 phenylalanine residues and reverse order that allows the side chain residues to be of exact alignment and superimposable to those of the parent l-amino acid peptide. This study examined the effect of Rev-D4F on atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E (apoE)-null mice and the underlying mechanisms.

MATERIALS/METHODS

ApoE-null mice were fed a chow diet and administered water (control), Rev-D4F, or L4F mimetic peptides (0.4 mg/mL, equivalent to 1.6 mg/d) orally in drinking water for 6 weeks. Aortic root atherosclerotic lesion area, lesion macrophage content, and the ability of plasma high-density lipoprotein (HDL) to influence monocyte chemotaxis were measured.

RESULTS

Rev-D4F significantly decreased aortic sinus atherosclerotic lesion area and lesion macrophage content without affecting plasma total and HDL-cholesterol levels in apoE-null mice. The HDL from Rev-D4F-treated mice showed enhanced anti-inflammatory monocyte chemotactic activity, while low-density lipoprotein (LDL) exhibited reduced proinflammatory activity. In in vitro studies, Rev-D4F inhibited LDL oxidation, endothelial cell vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1), and monocyte chemotactic factor 1 (MCP-1) expression, and monocyte adhesion to aortic endothelial cells.

CONCLUSIONS

The Rev-D4F inhibits atherosclerosis by inhibiting endothelial inflammatory/oxidative events and improving HDL function. The data suggest that Rev-D4F may be an effective apoAI mimetic peptide for further development in preventing atherosclerosis.

Design and synthesis of boronic acid inhibitors of endothelial lipase

Endothelial lipase (EL) and lipoprotein lipase (LPL) are homologous lipases that act on plasma lipoproteins. EL is predominantly a phospholipase and appears to be a key regulator of plasma HDL-C. LPL is mainly a triglyceride lipase regulating (V)LDL levels. The existing biological data indicate that inhibitors selective for EL over LPL should have anti-atherogenic activity, mainly through increasing plasma HDL-C levels. We report here the synthesis of alkyl, aryl, or acyl-substituted phenylboronic acids that inhibit EL. Many of the inhibitors evaluated proved to be nearly equally potent against both EL and LPL, but several exhibited moderate to good selectivity for EL.

Pro-soft Val-boroPro: a strategy for enhancing in vivo performance of boronic acid inhibitors of serine proteases

Val-boroPro, 1, is a potent, but relatively nonspecific inhibitor of the prolyl peptidases. It has antihyperglycemic activity from inhibition of DPPIV but also striking anticancer activity and a toxicity for which the mechanisms are unknown. 1 cyclizes at physiological pH, which attenuates its inhibitory potency >100-fold, which is a "soft drug" effect. Here we show that this phenomenon can be exploited to create prodrugs with unique properties and potential for selective in vivo targeting. Enzyme-mediated release delivers 1 to the target in the active form at physiological pH; cyclization attenuates systemic pharmacological effects from subsequent diffusion. This "pro-soft" design is demonstrated with a construct activated by and targeted to DPPIV, including in vivo results showing improved antihyperglycemic activity and reduced toxicity relative to 1. Pro-soft derivatives of 1 can help to illuminate the mechanisms underlying the three biological activities, or to help localize 1 at a tumor and thereby lead to improved anticancer agents with reduced toxicity. The design concept can also be applied to a variety of other boronic acid inhibitors.

Dipeptide boronic acid inhibitors of dipeptidyl peptidase IV: determinants of potency and in vivo efficacy and safety

Dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP-IV; E.C. 3.4.14.5), a serine protease that degrades the incretin hormones GLP-1 and GIP, is now a validated target for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Dipeptide boronic acids, among the first, and still among the most potent DPP-IV inhibitors known, suffer from a concern over their safety. Here we evaluate the potency, in vivo efficacy, and safety of a selected set of these inhibitors. The adverse effects induced by boronic acid-based DPP-IV inhibitors are essentially limited to what has been observed previously for non-boronic acid inhibitors and attributed to cross-reactivity with DPP8/9. While consistent with the DPP8/9 hypothesis, they are also consistent with cross-reactivity with some other intracellular target. The results further show that the potency of simple dipeptide boronic acid-based inhibitors can be combined with selectivity against DPP8/9 in vivo to produce agents with a relatively wide therapeutic index (>500) in rodents.

Synthesis and Characterization of Constrained Peptidomimetic Dipeptidyl Peptidase IV Inhibitors: Amino-Lactam boroAlanines

We describe here the epimerization-free synthesis and characterization of a new class of conformationally constrained lactam aminoboronic acid inhibitors of dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP IV; E.C. 3.4.14.5). These compounds have the advantage that they cannot undergo the pH-dependent cyclization prevalent in most dipeptidyl boronic acids that attenuates their potency at physiological pH. For example, D-3-amino-1-[L-1-boronic-ethyl]-pyrrolidine-2-one (amino-D-lactam-L-boroAla), one of the best lactam inhibitors of DPP IV, is several orders of magnitude less potent than L-Ala-L-boroPro, as measured by Ki values (2.3 nM vs 30 pM, respectively). At physiological pH, however, it is actually more potent than L-Ala-L-boroPro, as measured by IC50 values (4.2 nM vs 1400 nM), owing to the absence of the potency-attenuating cyclization. In an interesting and at first sight surprising reversal of the relationship between stereochemistry and potency observed with the conformationally unrestrained Xaa-boroPro class of inhibitors, the L-L diastereomers of the lactams are orders of magnitude less effective than the D-L lactams. However, this interesting reversal and the unexpected potency of the D-L lactams as DPP IV inhibitors can be understood in structural terms, which is explained and discussed here.

Synthesis and Structural Investigation of Internally Coordinated α-Amidoboronic Acids

[structure: see text] Six new N-acyl-boroGly derivatives, along with their N-acyl-boroSar analogues, have been synthesized by modification of conventional procedures. Structural characterization of these alpha-amidoboronic acids was accomplished by extensive use of 11B and 1H NMR spectroscopy. These compounds were prepared to determine the extent of intramolecular B-O dative bond formation within the context of a five-membered (:O=C-N-C-B) ring motif. It is shown that the formation of such dative bonds depends on the nature of the substituents at both the acyl carbon and the nitrogen atoms. Computational evidence from second-order Møller-Plesset perturbation theory is provided in support of these findings.

Abrogation of fibroblast activation protein enzymatic activity attenuates tumor growth

Tumor-associated fibroblasts are functionally and phenotypically distinct from normal fibroblasts that are not in the tumor microenvironment. Fibroblast activation protein is a 95 kDa cell surface glycoprotein expressed by tumor stromal fibroblasts, and has been shown to have dipeptidyl peptidase and collagenase activity. Site-directed mutagenesis at the catalytic site of fibroblast activation protein, Ser624 --> Ala624, resulted in an approximately 100,000-fold loss of fibroblast activation protein dipeptidyl peptidase (DPP) activity. HEK293 cells transfected with wild-type fibroblast activation protein, enzymatic mutant (S624A) fibroblast activation protein, or vector alone, were inoculated subcutaneously into immunodeficient mouse to assess the contribution of fibroblast activation protein enzymatic activity to tumor growth. Overexpression of wild-type fibroblast activation protein showed growth potentiation and enhanced tumorigenicity compared with both fibroblast activation protein S624A and vector-transfected HEK293 xenografts. HEK293 cells transfected with fibroblast activation protein S624A showed tumor growth rates and tumorigenicity potential similar only to vector-transfected HEK293. In vivo assessment of fibroblast activation protein DPP activity of these tumors showed enhanced enzymatic activity of wild-type fibroblast activation protein, with only baseline levels of fibroblast activation protein DPP activity in either fibroblast activation protein S624A or vector-only xenografts. These results indicate that the enzymatic activity of fibroblast activation protein is necessary for fibroblast activation protein-driven tumor growth in the HEK293 xenograft model system. This establishes the proof-of-principle that the enzymatic activity of fibroblast activation protein plays an important role in the promotion of tumor growth, and provides an attractive target for therapeutics designed to alter fibroblast activation protein-induced tumor growth by targeting its enzymatic activity.

Autochelation in Dipeptide Boronic Acids: pH-Dependent Structures and Equilibria of Asp-boroPro and His-boroPro by NMR Spectroscopy

Many dipeptide boronic acids of the type H(2)N-X-Y-B(OH)(2) are potent protease inhibitors. Interest in these compounds as drugs for cancer, diabetes, and other diseases is growing. Because of the great mutual B-N affinity, cyclization through the N- and B-termini, forming six-membered rings, is a common occurrence at neutral pH and higher where the terminal amino group is unprotonated. Here we report the discovery that when X, the N-terminal amino acid, contains a side chain having a functional group with boron affinity and suitable geometry, additional cyclization in the form of bidentate intramolecular chelation or "autochelation" may occur, predominantly at mid pH. NMR studies of two compounds, l-Aspartyl-l-boroProline (Asp-boroPro) and l-Histidyl-l-boroProline (His-boroPro), are reported here from pH 0.5 to pH 12 by (1)H, (15)N, (13)C, and (11)B NMR. Both of these previously unreported autochelates contain two fused six-membered rings, cis-proline, chiral boron, and -NH(2)(+) protons in slow exchange with water, even at 25 degrees C and pH as high as 4. Using microscopic acid-base equilibrium constants, we show that at high pH (>8 for Asp-boroPro and >10 for His-boroPro) hydroxide competes with the side chains for boron, reducing the chelates from bidentate to monodentate. At low pH (<0.5), proton competition for N-terminal nitrogens causes both compounds to become noncyclic. High chelate stability causes a reduction of the apparent acidic dissociation constant of the protonated N-terminal amino group greater than eight units. In the His-boroPro autochelate, imidazolate anion is produced at the extraordinarily low pH value of approximately 9.

alpha-lytic protease can exist in two separately stable conformations with different His57 mobilities and catalytic activities

alpha-Lytic protease is a bacterial serine protease widely studied as a model system of enzyme catalysis. Here we report that lyophilization induces a structural change in the enzyme that is not reversed by redissolution in water. The structural change reduces the mobility of the active-site histidine residue and the catalytic activity of the enzyme. The application of mild pressure to solutions of the altered enzyme reverses the lyophilization-induced structural change and restores the mobility of the histidine residue and the enzyme's catalytic activity. This effect of lyophilization permits a unique opportunity for investigating the relationship between histidine ring dynamics and catalytic activity. The results demonstrate that His57 in resting enzymes is more mobile than previously thought, especially when protonated. The histidine motion and its correlation to enzyme activity lend support to the reaction-driven ring flip hypothesis.

T antigen origin-binding domain of simian virus 40: determinants of specific DNA binding

To better understand origin recognition and initiation of DNA replication, we have examined by NMR complexes formed between the origin-binding domain of SV40 T antigen (T-ag-obd), the initiator protein of the SV40 virus, and cognate and noncognate DNA oligomers. The results reveal two structural effects associated with "origin-specific" binding that are absent in nonspecific DNA binding. The first is the formation of a hydrogen bond (H-bond) involving His 203, a residue that genetic studies have previously identified as crucial to both specific and nonspecific DNA binding in full-length T antigen. In free T-ag-obd, the side chain of His 203 has a pK(a) value of approximately 5, titrating to the N(epsilon)(1)H tautomer at neutral pH (Sudmeier, J. L., et al. (1996) J. Magn. Reson., Ser. B 113, 236-247). In complexes with origin DNA, His 203 N(delta)(1) becomes protonated and remains nontitrating as the imidazolium cation at all pH values from 4 to 8. The H-bonded N(delta1)H resonates at 15.9 ppm, an unusually large N-H proton chemical shift, of a magnitude previously observed only in the catalytic triad of serine proteases at low pH. The formation of this H-bond requires the middle G/C base pair of the recognition pentanucleotide, GAGGC. The second structural effect is a selective distortion of the A/T base pair characterized by a large (0.6 ppm) upfield chemical-shift change of its Watson-Crick proton, while nearby H-bonded protons remain relatively unaffected. The results indicate that T antigen, like many other DNA-binding proteins, may employ "catalytic" or "transition-state-like" interactions in binding its cognate DNA (Jen-Jacobson, L. (1997) Biopolymers 44, 153-180), which may be the solution to the well-known paradox between the relatively modest DNA-binding specificity exhibited by initiator proteins and the high specificity of initiation.

High-Frequency Dynamic Nuclear Polarization in MAS Spectra of Membrane and Soluble Proteins

One of the principal promises of solid-state NMR (SSNMR) magic angle spinning (MAS) experiments has been the possibility of determining the structures of molecules in states that are not accessible via X-ray or solution NMR experiments-e.g., membrane or amyloid proteins. However, the low sensitivity of SSNMR often restricts structural studies to small-model compounds and precludes many higher-dimensional solid-state MAS experiments on such systems. To address the sensitivity problem, we have developed experiments that utilize dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) to enhance sensitivity. In this communication, we report the successful application of MAS DNP to samples of cryoprotected soluble and membrane proteins. In particular, we have observed DNP signal enhancements of up to 50 in 15N MAS spectra of bacteriorhodopsin (bR) and alpha-lytic protease (alpha-LP). The spectra were recorded at approximately 90 K where MAS is experimentally straightforward, and the results suggest that the described protocol will be widely applicable.

Identification of histidine tautomers in proteins by 2D 1H/13C(delta2) one-bond correlated NMR

If the 13Cdelta2 chemical shift of neutral ("high pH") histidine is >122 ppm, primarily Ndelta1-H tautomer (2) is indicated; if it is <122 ppm, primarily Nepsilon2-H tautomer (1) is indicated. His resonances from the catalytic triad of active serine proteases, for example, are readily distinguished from those of denatured enzyme. The 13Cdelta2 chemical shifts increased by 6.2 ppm for the catalytic histidines in both alpha-lytic protease and subtilisin BPN' in raising the pH from that of imidazolium cation to that of tautomer 2. This tautomer identification method is easy to implement, requiring only bioincorporation of [U-13C] (or the more readily available [U-13C,15N])-histidine. Standard 1H/13C correlation HMQC or HSQC NMR pulse programs then yield the 13Cdelta2 chemical shifts with the benefit of high 1H sensitivity. Because of large one-bond spin-couplings (1JCH approximately 200 Hz), the method should extend to proteins having large 1H and 13C line widths, including very high molecular weights.

Tautomerism, acid-base equilibria, and H-bonding of the six histidines in subtilisin BPN' by NMR

We have determined by (15)N, (1)H, and (13)C NMR, the chemical behavior of the six histidines in subtilisin BPN' and their PMSF and peptide boronic acid complexes in aqueous solution as a function of pH in the range of from 5 to 11, and have assigned every (15)N, (1)H, C(epsilon 1), and C(delta2) resonance of all His side chains in resting enzyme. Four of the six histidine residues (17, 39, 67, and 226) are neutrally charged and do not titrate. One histidine (238), located on the protein surface, titrates with pK(a) = 7.30 +/- 0.03 at 25 degrees C, having rapid proton exchange, but restricted mobility. The active site histidine (64) in mutant N155A titrates with a pK(a) value of 7.9 +/- 0.3 and sluggish proton exchange behavior, as shown by two-site exchange computer lineshape simulation. His 64 in resting enzyme contains an extremely high C(epsilon 1)-H proton chemical shift of 9.30 parts per million (ppm) owing to a conserved C(epsilon 1)-H(.)O=C H-bond from the active site imidazole to a backbone carbonyl group, which is found in all known serine proteases representing all four superfamilies. Only His 226, and His 64 at high pH, exist as the rare N(delta1)-H tautomer, exhibiting (13)C(delta1) chemical shifts approximately 9 ppm higher than those for N(epsilon 2)-H tautomers. His 64 in the PMSF complex, unlike that in the resting enzyme, is highly mobile in its low pH form, as shown by (15)N-(1)H NOE effects, and titrates with rapid proton exchange kinetics linked to a pK(a) value of 7.47 +/- 0.02.

Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine) glucuronidation in vitro: assay development, human liver microsome activities and species differences

1. The main purpose was to develop a high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)-based method to assay serotonin glucuronidation activity using liver microsomal fractions. Application of this method was then demonstrated by determining serotonin UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) enzyme kinetics using human liver microsomes and recombinant human UGT1A6. Interspecies differences were also evaluated using liver microsomes from 10 different mammalian species. 2. Incubation of liver microsomes with serotonin, UDP-glucuronic acid and magnesium resulted in the formation of a single product peak using HPLC with fluorescence and ultraviolet absorbance detection. This peak was confirmed as serotonin glucuronide based on sensitivity to beta-glucuronidase and by obtaining the expected mass of 352 with positive-ion mass spectrometry. 3. Following a preparative HPLC isolation, the structure of this metabolite was established as serotonin-5-O-glucuronide by (1)H-NMR spectroscopy. 4. Enzyme kinetic studies showed apparent K(m) and V(max) of 8.8 +/- 0.3 mM and 43.4 +/- 0.4 nmoles min(-1) mg(-1) protein, respectively, for human liver microsomes, and 5.9 +/- 0.2 mM and 15.8 +/- 0.2 nmoles min(-1) mg(-1), respectively, for recombinant UGT1A6. 5. The order of serotonin-UGT activities in animal liver microsomes was rat > mouse > human > cow > pig > horse > dog > rabbit > monkey > ferret. Cat livers showed no serotonin-UGT activity. Heterozygous and homozygous mutant Gunn rat livers had 40 and 13%, respectively, of the activity of the normal Wistar rat, indicating a significant contribution by a rat UGT1A isoform to serotonin glucuronidation. 6. This assay provides a novel sensitive and specific technique for the measurement of serotonin-UGT activity in vitro.

Boron-11 pure quadrupole resonance investigation of peptide boronic acid inhibitors bound to alpha-lytic protease

Pure quadrupole resonance is a potentially useful spectroscopic approach to study the coordination of quadrupolar nuclei in biological systems. We used a field-cycling NMR method to observe boron pure quadrupole resonance of two peptide boronic acid inhibitors bound to alpha-lytic protease. The method is similar to our earlier field-cycling experiment [Ivanov, D., and Redfield, A. R. (1998) Z. Naturforsch. A 53, 269-272] but uses a simple Hartmann-Hahn transfer from proton to (11)B before field cycle and direct (11)B observe after it. Pure quadrupole resonance is sensitive to the boron coordination geometry. For example, trigonal boron in neutral phenylboronic acid, which was used as a model compound, resonates at 1450 kHz, while the resonance of the tetrahedral phenylboronic acid anion appears at approximately 600 kHz. In the complex of the MeOSuc-Ala-Ala-Pro-boroVal inhibitor with the enzyme the quadrupole resonance signal was observed at 600-650 kHz, which indicates tetrahedral boron coordination in the active site. The quadrupole frequency of the MeOSuc-Ala-Ala-Pro-boroPhe enzyme-inhibitor complex, in which a boron-histidine bond is known to be formed, was found to be the same within experimental error as in the MeOSuc-Ala-Ala-Pro-boroVal enzyme-inhibitor adduct, suggesting that the boron coordination geometry in the enzyme-MeOSuc-Ala-Ala-Pro-boroPhe adduct is also close to tetrahedral.

Unusual 1H NMR chemical shifts support (His) C(epsilon) 1...O==C H-bond: proposal for reaction-driven ring flip mechanism in serine protease catalysis

13C-selective NMR, combined with inhibitor perturbation experiments, shows that the C(epsilon)(1)H proton of the catalytic histidine in resting alpha-lytic protease and subtilisin BPN' resonates, when protonated, at 9.22 ppm and 9.18 ppm, respectively, which is outside the normal range for such protons and approximately 0.6 to 0.8 ppm further downfield than previously reported. They also show that the previous alpha-lytic protease assignments [Markley, J. L., Neves, D. E., Westler, W. M., Ibanez, I. B., Porubcan, M. A. & Baillargeon, M. W. (1980) Front. Protein Chem. 10, 31-61] were to signals from inactive or denatured protein. Simulations of linewidth vs. pH demonstrate that the true signal is more difficult to detect than corresponding signals from inactive derivatives, owing to higher imidazole pK(a) values and larger chemical shift differences between protonated and neutral forms. A compilation and analysis of available NMR data indicates that the true C(epsilon)(1)H signals from other serine proteases are similarly displaced downfield, with past assignments to more upfield signals probably in error. The downfield displacement of these proton resonances is shown to be consistent with an H-bond involving the histidine C(epsilon)(1)H as donor, confirming the original hypothesis of Derewenda et al. [Derewenda, Z. S., Derewenda, U. & Kobos, P. M. (1994) J. Mol. Biol. 241, 83-93], which was based on an analysis of literature x-ray crystal structures of serine hydrolases. The invariability of this H-bond among enzymes containing Asp-His-Ser triads indicates functional importance. Here, we propose that it enables a reaction-driven imidazole ring flip mechanism, overcoming a major dilemma inherent in all previous mechanisms, namely how these enzymes catalyze both the formation and productive breakdown of tetrahedral intermediates.

A low-barrier hydrogen bond in the catalytic triad of serine proteases? Theory versus experiment

Cleland and Kreevoy recently advanced the idea that a special type of hydrogen bond (H-bond), termed a low-barrier hydrogen bond (LBHB), may account for the "missing" transition state stabilization underlying the catalytic power of many enzymes, and Frey et al. have proposed that the H-bond between aspartic acid 102 and histidine 57 in the catalytic triad of serine proteases is an example of a catalytically important LBHB. Experimental facts are here considered regarding the aspartic acid-histidine and cis-urocanic H-bonds that are inconsistent with fundamental tenets of the LBHB hypothesis. The inconsistencies between theory and experiment in these paradigm systems cast doubt on the existence of LBHBs, as currently defined, within enzyme active sites.

A 13C-NMR study of the role of Asn-155 in stabilizing the oxyanion of a subtilisin tetrahedral adduct

By removing one of the hydrogen-bond donors in the oxyanion hole of subtilisin BPN, we have been able to determine how it affects the catalytic efficiency of the enzyme and the pKa of the oxyanion formed in a choloromethane inhibitor derivative. Variant 8397 of subtilisin BPN contains five mutations which enhance its stability. Site-directed mutagenesis was used to prepare the N155A mutant of this variant. The catalytic efficiencies of wild-type and variant 8397 are similar, but replacing Asn-155 with alanine reduces catalytic efficiency approx. 300-fold. All three forms of subtilisin were alkylated using benzyloxycarbonylglycylglycyl[2-13C]phenylalanylchloromethane++ + and examined by 13C-NMR. A single signal due to the 13C-enriched carbon was detected in all the derivatives and it was assigned to the hemiketal carbon of a tetrahedral adduct formed between the hydroxy group of Ser-221 and the inhibitor. This signal had chemical shifts in the range 98.3-103.6 p.p.m., depending on the pH. The titration shift of 4.7-4.8 p.p.m. was assigned to oxyanion formation. The oxyanion pKa values in the wild-type and 8397 variants were 6.92 and 7.00 respectively. In the N155A mutant of the 8397 variant the oxyanion pKa increased to 8.09. We explain why such a small increase is observed and we conclude that it is the interaction between the oxyanion and the imidazolium cation of the active-site histidine that is the main factor responsible for lowering the oxyanion pKa.

NMR analysis of interactions of a phosphatidylinositol 3'-kinase SH2 domain with phosphotyrosine peptides reveals interdependence of major binding sites

The interactions of the N-terminal src homology (SH2) domain (N-SH2) of the 85 kDa subunit of phosphatidylinositol 3'-kinase (PI-3K) with phosphotyrosine (ptyr) and a series of ptyr-containing peptides have been examined by NMR spectroscopy. HSQC (heteronuclear single-quantum coherence) NMR spectra of 15N-labeled SH2 were used to evaluate its interactions with ptyr-containing ligands. The ability of ligands to cause chemical shift changes was compared to their potency as competitors in in vitro binding experiments using polyoma virus middle T antigen (MT). The results suggest the interdependence of SH2 binding elements. Chemical shifts of residues involved in the ptyr binding were altered by variations of the sequence of the bound peptide, suggesting that the ptyr fit can be adjusted by the peptide sequence. Perturbations of chemical shifts of residues coordinating the methionine three residues C-terminal to the ptyr (the +3 residue) were affected by substitution in the binding peptide at +1 and vice versa. Such results show synergistic interplay between regions of the SH2 binding residues C-terminal to the ptyr.

HCN, a triple-resonance NMR technique for selective observation of histidine and tryptophan side chains in 13C/15N-labeled proteins

HCN, a new 3D NMR technique for stepwise coherence transfer from 1H to 13C to 15N and reverse through direct spin couplings 1JCH and 1JCN, is presented as a method for detection and assignment of histidine and tryptophan side-chain 1H, 13C, and 15N resonances in uniformly 13C/15N-labeled proteins. Product-operator calculations of cross-peak volumes vs adjustable delay tau 3 were employed for determination of optimal tau 3. For the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K SH3 domain, MW = 9.6 kD) at pH 6, H(C)N, the 1H/15N projection, produced observable cross peaks within 20 min. and was completely selective for the single tryptophan and single histidine. The 3D HCN experiment yielded well-defined cross peaks in 20 h for the 13C/15N-labeled origin-specific DNA binding domain from simian virus 40 T-antigen (T-ag-OBD131-259, MW = 15.4 kD) at pH 5.5. Resonances from all six histidines in T-ag-OBD were observed, and 11 of the 12 1H and 13C chemical shifts and 10 of the 12 15N chemical shifts were determined. The 13C dimension proved essential in assignment of the multiply overlapping 1H and 15N resonances. From the spectra recorded at a single pH, three of the imidazoles were essentially neutral and the other three were partially protonated (22-37%). HCN yielded strong cross peaks after 18 h on a 2.0 mM sample of phenylmethanesulfonyl fluoride (PMSF)-inhibited alpha-lytic protease (MW = 19.8 kD) at pH 4.4. No spectra have been obtained, however, of native or boronic acid-inhibited alpha-lytic protease after 18 h at various temperatures ranging from 5 to 55 degrees C, probably due to efficient relaxation of active-site imidazole 1H and/or 15N nuclei.

Solution structure of the origin DNA-binding domain of SV40 T-antigen

The structure of the domain from simian virus 40 (SV40) large T-antigen that binds to the SV40 origin of DNA replication (T-ag-OBD131-260) has been determined by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. The overall fold, consisting of a central five-stranded antiparallel beta-sheet flanked by two alpha-helices on one side and one alpha-helix and one 3(10)-helix on the other, is a new one. Previous mutational analyses have identified two elements, termed A (approximately 152-155) and B2 (203-207), as essential for origin-specific recognition. These elements form two closely juxtaposed loops that define a continuous surface on the protein. The addition of a duplex oligonucleotide containing the origin recognition pentanucleotide GAGGC induces chemical shift changes and slows amide proton exchange in resonances from this region, indicating that this surface directly contacts the DNA.

Structure and function of the epidermal growth factor domain of P-selectin

P-selectin is a multidomain adhesion protein on the surface of activated platelets and endothelial cells that functions in the recruitment of leukocytes to the site of inflammation. The amino-terminal lectin and EGF domains constitute the ligand recognition unit. We have produced a synthetic 40-residue P-selectin EGF domain (P-sel:EGF) to examine the structure and function of this domain independent of P-selectin. The peptide was folded in vitro and exhibited the same disulfide bonding pattern as other EGF-like domains. P-sel:EGF did not inhibit P-selectin-mediated cellular adhesion assays, indicating that the lectin domain is also required. We undertook the study of the P-selectin EGF by 1H NMR to determine its structure independent of the lectin domain and to compare its structure to that of E-selectin determined crystallographically [Graves et al. (1994) Nature 367, 532]. Although the binding of P-selectin to its carbohydrate ligand is calcium dependent, and some EGF domains have calcium binding sites, addition of calcium had no effect on the NMR spectrum or on the pH-induced changes. Nearly complete resonance assignments were made from 2D 1H NMR spectra at pH 6.0. Two sections of antiparallel beta-sheet were identified on the basis of the pattern of long-range NOEs, 3JHN alpha coupling constants, and slowly exchanging amides. The solution structure of the peptide backbone was determined using distance geometry and simulated annealing calculations. The backbone RMSD to the geometric average for 19 final structures is 0.64 +/- 0.17 A. The resulting fold closely resembles that of other EGF-like peptides, including the E-selectin EGF domain (RMSD approximately 1.08 A). However, compared to the E-selectin EGF structure which also contains the lectin domain, some residues from 1-11 are less ordered, and novel contacts occur between the amino terminus and the core beta-sheet. Despite marked structural homology of the selectin polypeptide backbones, the selectin EGF surfaces show unique distributions of charged residues, a feature that likely correlates to the functional differences.

Structure-activity relationships of boronic acid inhibitors of dipeptidyl peptidase IV. 1. Variation of the P2 position of Xaa-boroPro dipeptides

A series of prolineboronic acid (boroPro) containing dipeptides were synthesized and assayed for their ability to inhibit the serine protease dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPPIV). Inhibitory activity, which requires the (R)-stereoisomer of boroPro in the P1 position, appears to tolerate a variety of L-amino acids in the P2 position. Substitution at the P2 position which is not tolerated include the D-amino acids, alpha,alpha-disubstituted amino acids, and glycine. Specificity against DPPII and proline specific endopeptidase is reported. A correlation between the ability to inhibit DPPIV in cell culture and in the human mixed lymphocyte reaction is demonstrated. A synthesis of prolineboronic acid is reported as well as conditions for generating the fully unprotected boronic acid dipeptides in either their cyclic or acyclic forms.