Hepatoprotective Effect of Moringa Oil on Rats under Fungicide Toxicity

The present study is designed to evaluate whether pretreatment with moringa would have a protective effect on thioacetamide (TAA)-induced liver fibrosis, assessing biochemical and histopathological changes in Wistar male rats. Exposure to TAA induced notable biochemical and histopathological alterations. Liver fibrosis induced by TAA, along with associated biochemical and histological damage, has not been previously investigated in male rats supplemented with moringa oil. The experiment involved forty male rats distributed across four groups, each comprising ten rats. Group 1 served as controls and received intraperitoneal injections of saline solution twice weekly for six weeks. Group 2 rats were injected with 300 mg/kg body weight of TAA (Sigma-Aldrich Corp.) twice weekly for the same duration. Group 3 rats were orally supplemented with moringa oil at 800 mg/kg body weight/day and received intraperitoneal injections of TAA at the same dosage as Group 2 for six weeks. Finally, Group 4 rats were injected with saline solution twice weekly and orally supplemented with moringa oil at 800 mg/kg body weight/day for the same period. At the end of the experiment, we determined body weight and performed liver function analysis. Additionally, we examined the liver histology of the different groups. Results showed that moringa oil treatment protected rat livers from TAA toxicity by improving liver function analysis and preventing liver fibrosis. Moringa oil can be considered a promising agent for protection against TAA toxicity.

PROFESSIONAL RISKS FOR AGRICULTURAL PERSONNEL TREATING BERRIES AND MELON CROPS WITH PESTICIDES

OBJECTIVE

The aim: Нygienic assessment of labour conditions and risks for the Ukrainian agricultural personnel treating berries and melon crops with fungicides, herbicides and insecticides for justification of their safe use regulations.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Materials and methods: Natural studies of labour conditions and risk correspond to the acting laws of Ukraine. The results were statistically treated using IBM SPSS StatisticsBase v.22.

RESULTS

Results: The natural studies of fungicides, insecticides, used for treatment of berries and melon crops, show that labour air environment corresponds to hygienic standards. The authors have established that the hazard index of complex fungicides effect on spray fueling attendants and tractor drivers is 0.110}0.046 and 0.155}0.071, that of herbicides - 0.34}0.025 and 0.380}0.257, that of insecticides - 0.221}0.111 and 0.222}0.110, respectively; hazard index of combined effect of several acting substances makes up- 0.239}0.088 and 0.336}0.140 for spray fueling attendants and tractor drivers, respectively. The statistical analysis shows that the hazard coefficients of inhalation and percutaneous penetration do not differ statistically between spray fueling attendants and tractor drivers (р>0.05). The percutaneous risk (%) of various pesticide groups for spray fueling attendants ranges 65.74-97.58 %, for tractor drivers - 50.72-95.23 %.

CONCLUSION

Conclusions: The analysis has shown that the professional risk of fungicides, herbicides, insecticides, during agricultural treatment of the berries and melon crops does not exceed standards.

Terminal residue and dietary intake risk assessment of prothioconazole-desthio and fluoxastrobin in wheat field ecosystem

BACKGROUND

Wheat is one of the most important cereal crops worldwide, and use of fungicides is an essential part of wheat production. Both prothioconazole and fluoxastrobin give excellent control of important seed and soilborne pathogens. The combination of these two fungicides shows a complementary mode of action and has a wide usage around the world. But the residue levels of these fungicides in the wheat matrix are still unknown.

RESULTS

In the current study, a simple, low-cost and highly sensitive method using modified QuECHERS procedure combined with high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry was developed to simultaneously quantify E- and Z-fluoxastrobin and the main metabolite prothioconazole-desthio of prothioconazole in the wheat matrix. The recoveries of prothioconazole-desthio, E-fluoxastrobin and Z-fluoxastrobin ranged from 84% to 101%, with relative standard deviation of less than 13.2%. The terminal residues of prothioconazole-desthio and E- and Z-fluoxastrobin were studied in wheat grain and straw under field conditions. The results showed that the terminal residue of the target compounds ranged from <0.01 to 0.029 mg kg^-1 and <0.05 to 7.6 mg kg^-1 in wheat grain and straw (expressed as dry weight), respectively. The risk quotients of prothioconazole-desthio and fluoxastrobin were 0.2% and 3.2%.

CONCLUSIONS

The residue levels of the target analytes in wheat grain were lower than the maximum residue limits recommended by the Chinese Ministry of Agriculture. And the calculated risk quotient values were far below 100%, indicating a low dietary intake health risk to consumers. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

Effects of foliar fungicide on yield, micronutrients, and cadmium in grains from historical and modern hard winter wheat genotypes

Plant breeding and disease management practices have increased the grain yield of hard winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) adapted to the Great Plains of the United States during the last century. However, the effect of genetic gains for seed yield and the application of fungicide on the micronutrient and cadmium (Cd) concentration in wheat grains is still unclear. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the effects of fungicide application on the productivity and nutritional quality of wheat cultivars representing 80 years of plant breeding efforts. Field experiments were conducted over two crop years (2017 and 2018) with eighteen hard winter wheat genotypes released between 1933 and 2013 in the presence or absence of fungicide application. For each growing season, the treatments were arranged in a split-plot design with the fungicide levels (treated and untreated) as the whole plot treatments and the genotypes as split-plot treatments in triplicate. The effects on seed yield, grain protein concentration (GPC), micronutrients, phytic acid, and Cd in grains were measured. While the yield of wheat was found to increase at annualized rates of 26.5 and 13.0 kg ha-1 yr-1 in the presence and absence of fungicide (P < 0.001), respectively, GPC (-190 and -180 mg kg-1 yr-1, P < 0.001), Fe (-35.0 and -44.0 μg kg-1 yr-1, P < 0.05), and Zn (-68.0 and -57.0 μg kg-1 yr-1, P < 0.01) significantly decreased during the period studied. In contrast to the other mineral elements, grain Cd significantly increased over time (0.4 μg kg-1 yr-1, P < 0.01) in the absence of fungicide. The results from this study are of great concern, as many mineral elements essential for human nutrition have decreased over time while the toxic heavy metal, Cd, has increased, indicating modern wheats are becoming a better vector of dietary Cd.

Resveratrol relieves chlorothalonil-induced apoptosis and necroptosis through miR-15a/Bcl2-A20 axis in fish kidney cells

Chlorothalonil (CT) is a commonly used fungicide and its excessive application seriously threatens aquatic life and human health. Resveratrol (RSV) is a natural polyphenol and can be used as a therapeutic and preventive agent for the treatment of various diseases. To explore the toxic mechanism of CT exposure on fish kidney cell, as well as the alleviation effect of RSV, we established CT poisoning and/or RSV treatment fish kidney cell models. Ctenopharyngodon idellus kidney (CIK) cell line was treated with CT (5 μg/L) and/or RSV (10 μM) for 48 h. The results showed that CT exposure activated cytochromeP450s (CYPs) including CYP1A1, CYP1B1 and CYP1C, caused malondialdehyde (MDA) accumulation, inhibited glutathione (GSH) levels and glutathione peroxidase (GPX) activities, increased the expression of miR-15a and downregulated BCL2 and TNFα-induced protein 3 (TNFAIP3, A20), triggered mitochondrial pathway mediated apoptosis and receptor interacting serine/threonine kinase (RIP)-dependent necroptosis in CIK cells. However, cell death under CT exposure could be relieved by RSV treatment through inhibiting the expression of CYP1 family genes and restoring miR-15a/BCL2-A20 axis disorders. Overall, we conclude that RSV could relieve CT-induced apoptosis and necroptosis through miR-15a/Bcl2-A20 axis in CIK cells. These results enrich the toxicological mechanisms of the CT and confirm that RSV can be used as a potential antidote for CT poisoning.

Historical trends of the ecotoxicological pesticide risk from the main grain crops in Rolling Pampa (Argentina)

We showed the results of the first long-term analysis (1987-2019) of pesticide (herbicides, fungicides and insecticides) impact in the Rolling Pampa, one of the main agricultural areas of Argentina. Using a clear and meaningful tool, based not only on acute toxicity but also on scaling up the results to total sown area, we identified time trends for both pesticide impact and the ecoefficiency of modal pesticide profiles. By the end of the time series, soybean showed a pesticide impact four times greater than maize crop in the studied area. However, the time trend in the subperiod (2012-2019) showed a sustainable pattern of pesticide use in soybean crop, with an improvement in its ecoefficiency. Oppositely, maize showed a relatively constant ecoefficiency value during most of the time series, suggesting a possible path towards an unsustainable cropping system. Findings from this study suggest that some efforts have to be made to improve the pest management decisions towards a more efficient pesticide profiles in maize crop and to keep improving the ecotoxicity pesticide profile in soybean crops because of its large sown area in the studied area.

Efficacy of Essential Trace Elements Supplementation on Mineral Composition, Sperm Characteristics, Antioxidant Status, and Genotoxicity in Testis of Tebuconazole-treated Rats

OBJECTIVE

This research was performed to evaluate the effect of tebuconazole (TBZ) on reproductive organs of male rats and to assess the protective role of combined essential trace elements in alleviating the detrimental effect of TBZ on male reproductive function.

METHODS

For this purpose, 48 rats were exposed to 100 mg/kg TBZ, TBZ supplemented with zinc (Zn), selenium (Se), copper (Cu), and iron (Fe), TBZ + (Se + Zn); TBZ + Cu; or TBZ + Fe. The experiment was conducted for 30 consecutive days.

RESULTS

TBZ caused a significant perturbation in mineral levels and reduction in reproductive organs weights, plasma testosterone level, and testicular antioxidant enzyme activities. The TBZ-treated group also showed a significant increase in sperm abnormalities (count, motility, and viability percent), plasma follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone concentrations, lipid peroxidation, protein oxidation, and severe DNA degradation in comparison with the controls. Histopathologically, TBZ caused testis impairments. Conversely, treatment with trace elements, in combination or alone, improved the reproductive organ weights, sperm characteristics, TBZ-induced toxicity, and histopathological modifications in testis.

CONCLUSION

TBZ exerts significant harmful effects on male reproductive system. The concurrent administration of trace elements reduces testis dysfunction, fertility, and toxicity induced by TBZ.

Fungicide-Tolerant Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria Mitigate Physiological Disruption of White Radish Caused by Fungicides Used in the Field Cultivation

Excessive use of fungicides in agriculture may result in substantial accumulation of active residues in soil, which affect crop health and yield. We investigated the response of Raphanus sativus (white radish) to fungicides in soil and potential beneficial interactions of radish plants with fungicide-tolerant plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR). The PGPR were isolated from cabbage and mustard rhizospheres. Morphological and biochemical characteristics measured using standard methods, together with analysis of partial 16S rRNA gene sequences, revealed that fungicide-tolerant PGPR, isolates PS3 and AZ2, were closely related to Pseudomonas spp. These PGPR survived in the presence of high fungicide concentrations i.e., up to 2400 μg mL-1 carbendazim (CBZM) and 3200 μg mL-1 hexaconazole (HEXA). Bacterial isolates produced plant growth stimulants even under fungicide stress, though fungicides induced surface morphological distortion and alteration in membrane permeability of these bacteria, which was proved by a set of microscopic observations. Fungicides considerably affected the germination efficiency, growth, and physiological development of R. sativus, but these effects were relieved when inoculated with PGPR isolates. For instance, CBZM at 1500 mg kg-1 decreased whole dry biomass by 71%, whole plant length by 54%, total chlorophyll by 50%, protein content by 61%, and carotenoid production by 29%. After applying isolate AZ2 for white radish grown in CBZM (10 mg kg-1)-amended soil, it could improve plant growth and development with increased whole plant dry weight (10%), entire plant length (13%) and total chlorophyll content (18%). Similarly, isolate PS3 enhanced plant survival by relieving plant stress with declined biomarkers, i.e., proline (12%), malondialdehyde (3%), ascorbate peroxidase (6.5%), catalase (18%), and glutathione reductase (4%). Application of isolates AZ2 and PS3 could be effective for remediation of fungicide-contaminated soil and for improving the cultivation of radish plants while minimizing inputs of fungicides.

Design and Construction of the Gadolinium Oxide Nanorod-Embedded Graphene Aerogel: A Potential Application for Electrochemical Detection of Postharvest Fungicide

The rapid development of electrochemical sensors holds great promise to serve as next generation point-of-care safety devices. However, the practical performances of electrochemical sensors are cruelly limited by stability, selectivity, and sensitivity. These issues have been well addressed by introducing rational designs into the modified electrode for achieving the required performances. Herein, we demonstrate the gadolinium oxide nanorods embedded on the graphene aerogel (GdO NRs/GA) for a highly selective electrochemical detection of carbendazim (CDM). The GdO NRs/GA nanocomposite was characterized using X-ray diffraction, Raman spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, field emission gun scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy with elemental mapping, and energy-dispersive spectrometry. The GdO NRs/GA-modified electrode shows a much improved electrochemical performance compared to other electrodes. Interestingly, the GdO NRs are strongly anchored in the GA matrix, which provides a more sufficient pathway for the rapid electron and ion transportation. On the basis of these findings, our proposed sensor achieves a wide detection range from 0.01 to 75 μM with a correlation coefficient of 0.996 and a low detection limit of 3.0 nM. Most markedly, the real-time monitoring of the proposed electrochemical sensor was proved by the successful determination of CDM in environmental samples. Our research work has opened a novel way to the rationale for the construction of highly efficient practical electrochemical sensors.

ETAPOD: A forecast model for prediction of black pod disease outbreak in Nigeria

Food poisoning and environmental pollution are products of excessive chemical usage in Agriculture. In Nigeria, cocoa farmers apply fungicides frequently to control black pod disease (BPD), this practice is life threatening and lethal to the environment. The development of a warning system to detect BPD outbreak can help minimize excessive usage of fungicide by farmers. 8 models (MRM₁-MRM₈) were developed and 5 (MRM₁-MRM₅) selected for optimization and performance check. MRM₅ (ETAPOD) performed better than the other forecast models. ETAPOD had 100% performance rating for BPD prediction in Ekiti (2009, 2010, 2011 and 2015) with model efficiency of 95–100%. The performance of the model was rated 80% in 2010 and 2015 (Ondo) with model efficiency of 85–90%, 70% in 2011 (Osun) with model efficiency of 81–84%, 60% in 2010 (Ondo and Osun) and 2015 (Osun) with model efficiency of 75–80%, 40% in 2009 (Osun) with model efficiency of 65–69% and 0% 1n 2011 (Ondo) with model efficiency between 0 and 49%. ETAPOD is a simplified BPD detection device for the past, present and future.

Changes in Brain Acetylcholinesterase and Oxidative Stress Biomarkers in African Catfish Exposed to Carbendazim

Carbendazim (CBZ) is a widely used, systemic, broad-spectrum benzimidazole fungicide. It is used worldwide against fungal diseases on a wide range of agricultural products and in domestic gardens. The activities of brain oxidative stress biomarkers and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) in juvenile African Catfish Clarias gariepinus exposed to CBZ were investigated. Juveniles were exposed to sublethal concentrations of 0.22, 0.43, and 0.64 mg/L CBZ, which corresponded to 5, 10, and 15% of the 96-h LC50 (the concentration that was lethal to 50% of the test organisms over the first 96 h) of CBZ fungicide for 21 d. Individuals were allowed an extra 7-d recovery period. The brain tissues were sampled and analyzed on days 1, 7, 14, 21, and 28 (including the 7-d recovery period). The results indicated significant concentration-dependent inhibition of the brain AChE activities in all exposed groups. The lipid peroxidation was significantly elevated while the antioxidant enzymes and protein values were significantly inhibited by CBZ exposure. However, the values of catalase on days 7, 14, and 21 were significantly higher than day 1 values. Overall, CBZ altered brain oxidative stress parameters and led to the inhibition of AChE. This fungicide should be used with utmost caution to protect and safeguard fish, ensuring that fish production and survival in the environment remain unaffected.

Ortho-phenylphenol exposure impairs porcine sperm motility through AMPK/AKT signaling pathway

Ortho-phenylphenol (OPP), as an active ingredient of disinfectants, has been worldwide utilized as fungicides and antibacterial agents in hospital, agriculture, wood preservation, and veterinary products. However, little is known about the toxic effects of OPP on male reproduction, especially sperm motility, and the underlying mechanisms. In this study, we chose porcine sperms as in vitro model to investigate the effects and mechanisms of OPP exposure on sperm motility. Our results indicated that porcine sperm motility decreases significantly in a dose-dependent manner after exposed to OPP. Additionally, ATP synthesis deficiency was revealed by downregulation of ATP synthase subunit beta and adenosine 5'-monophosphate-activated protein kinase expression. Furthermore, OPP disturbed the expression of TP53 and PTEN, which contributed to AKT pathway deactivation. OPP exposure also disrupted platelet-derived growth factor receptor A expression, which further inhibited 3-phosphoinositide-dependent protein kinase 1 activation, resulting in protein kinase B and pyruvate dehydrogenase phosphatase catalytic subunit 1 deactivation. In conclusion, these observations suggest that OPP exposure decreases porcine sperm motility by disturbing the AMPK/AKT signaling pathway. Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 2019. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Continuing Impacts of Selective Inhibition on Bacterial and Fungal Communities in an Agricultural Soil

Selective inhibition (SI) has been routinely used to differentiate the contributions of bacteria and fungi to soil ecological processes. SI experiments typically measured rapid responses within hours since the addition of inhibitor, but the long-term effects of selective biocides on microbial community composition and function were largely unknown. In this study, a microcosm experiment was performed with an agricultural soil to explore the effectiveness of two bactericides (bronopol, streptomycin) and two fungicides (cycloheximide, captan), which were applied at two different concentrations (2 and 10 mg g^-1). The microcosms were incubated for 6 weeks. A radiolabeled substrate, [1,2,3,4,4a,9a-¹⁴C] anthracene, was spiked to all microcosms, and the derived CO₂ was monitored during the incubation. The abundance and composition of bacteria and fungi were assessed by qPCR and Miseq sequencing of ribosomal rRNA genes. It was demonstrated that only 2 mg g^-1 bronopol and cycloheximide significantly changed the bacteria to fungi ratio without apparent non-target inhibition on the abundances; however, community shifts were observed in all treatments after 6 weeks incubation. The enrichment of specific taxa implicated a selection of resistant or adapted microbes by these biocides. Mineralization of anthracene was continuingly suppressed in all SI microcosms, which may result in biased estimate of bacterial and fungal contributions to pollutant degradation. These findings highlight the risks of long-term application of selective inhibition, and a preliminary assessment of biocide selection and concentration is highly recommended.

Transcriptome analysis of MAPK signaling pathway and associated genes to angiogenesis in chicken erythrocytes on response to thiram-induced tibial lesions

This study was planned to investigate TD (Tibial dyschondroplasia) on the potential MAPK signaling pathway and angiogenesis related genes. Forty-eight broilers were allotted into control (C) and treatment (T) groups of 2, 6 and 15 days as C1, C2, C3, T1, T2 and T3. The histopathology results revealed that tibiotarsus bone of chickens had more lesions on day 6 (T2 group). The chondrocytes were disordered, and the size, shape and proliferation were affected. Transcriptome results revealed that differentially expressed genes (DEGs) identified were 63, 1026, 623, 130, 141 and 146 in C1 (2 days control vs 6 days control); C2 (2 days control vs 15 days control); C3 (6 days control vs 15 days control); T1 (2 days treatment vs 6 days treatment); T2 (2 days treatment vs 15 days treatment) and T3 (6 days treatment vs 15 days treatment) groups respectively. Whereas, 10 angiogenesis related-genes RHOC, MEIS2, BAIAP2, TGFBI, KLF2, CYR61, PTPN11, PLXNC1, HSPH1 and NRP2 were downregulated on day 6 in the treatment group. The pathway which was found enriched in the control and treatment groups was MAPK signaling pathway. Therefore selected 10 MAPK signaling pathway-related genes RAC2, MAP3K1, PRKCB, FLNB, IL1R1, PTPN7, RPS6KA, MAP3K6, GNA12 and HSPA8 which were found significantly downregulated in the treatment group on day 6. It is concluded that angiogenesis and MAPK signaling pathway related genes has an essential role in TD, as those top screened genes found downregulated in the thiram fed chickens when TD observed severed on day 6.

Controlling the risks of nano-enabled products through the life cycle: The case of nano copper oxide paint for wood protection and nano-pigments used in the automotive industry

The widespread use of engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) in consumer products and the overwhelming uncertainties in their ecological and human health risks have raised concerns regarding their safety among industries and regulators. There has been an ongoing debate over the past few decades on ways to overcome the challenges in assessing and mitigating nano-related risks, which has reached a phase of general consensus that nanotechnology innovation should be accompanied by the application of the precautionary principle and best practice risk management, even if the risk assessment uncertainties are large. We propose a quantitative methodology for selecting the optimal risk control strategy based on information about human health and ecological risks, efficacy of risk mitigation measures, cost and other contextual factors. The risk control (RC) methodology was developed in the European FP7 research project SUN and successfully demonstrated in two case studies involving real industrial nano-enabled products (NEPs): nano-scale copper oxide (CuO) and basic copper carbonate (Cu₂(OH)₂CO₃) used as antimicrobial and antifungal coatings and impregnations for the preservation of treated wood, and two nanoscale pigments used for colouring plastic automotive parts (i.e. red organic pigment and carbon black). The application of RC for human health risks showed that although nano-related risks could easily be controlled in automotive plastics case study with modifications in production technology or specific type of engineering controls, nano-related risks due to sanding and sawing copper oxide painted wood were non-acceptable in the use lifecycle stage and would need the identification of a more effective risk control strategy.

Effects of Fludioxonil on the Cell Growth and Apoptosis in T and B Lymphocytes

Fludioxonil is fungicide used in agriculture, which is present in fruits and vegetables. In this study, the effects of fludioxonil on human immune cell viability, apoptosis, cell cycle arrest, and mitochondrial membrane potential were examined in human immune cells, such as Jurkat T cells and Ramos B cells. To examine the cell viability, Jurkat T cells and Ramos B cells were treated with fludioxonil (10⁻⁹–10⁻⁵ M) for 24 h and 48 h. Water soluble tetrazolium salt assay showed that fludioxonil decreased Jurkat T cell and Ramos B cell viability. Jurkat T cell viability decreased at 24 and 48 h, but Ramos B cell viability decreased only at 48 h. JC-1 dye revealed decreased mitochondrial membrane potential in fludioxonil-treated Jurkat T cells and Ramos B cells. To evaluate apoptosis, annexin-V conjugated FITC, AF488, and propidium iodide (PI) were used and to evaluate cell cycle arrest PI was used. Apoptosis and cell cycle arrest were induced by fludioxonil (10⁻⁷–10⁻⁵ M) in the Jurkat T cells at 24 and 48 h and Ramos B cells at 48 h. Moreover, the protein levels of pro-apoptotic proteins, such as p53, BAX, and cleaved caspase 3, were increased and anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2 was decreased by fludioxonil. Expression of the Fas receptor related to the extrinsic apoptosis pathway was increased by fludioxonil. Additionally, cyclin D1 and cyclin E1 were decreased by fludioxonil. In the present study, fludioxonil induced immunotoxicity in human T cells and B cells through apoptosis and cell cycle arrest. Therefore, the present study suggests that fludioxonil induces the cellular toxicity in immune cells.

Fungicide application increased copper-bioavailability and impaired nitrogen fixation through reduced root nodule formation on alfalfa

Copper-based fungicides have been used for a long time in viticulture and have accumulated in many vineyard soils. In this study, incrementing Cu(OH)₂-based fungicide application from 0.05 to 5 g Cu kg^-1 on two agricultural soils (an acidic sandy loam (L, pH 4.95) and an alkaline silt loam (D, pH 7.45)) resulted in 5 times more mobile Cu in the acidic soil. The most sensitive parameters of alfalfa (Medicago sativa) growing in these soils were the root nodule number, decreasing to 34% and 15% of the control at 0.1 g Cu kg^-1 in soil L and at 1.5 g Cu kg^-1 in soil D, respectively, as well as the nodule biomass, decreasing to 25% and 27% at 0.5 g Cu kg^-1 in soil L and at 1.5 g Cu kg^-1 in soil D, respectively. However, the enzymatic N₂-fixation was not directly affected by Cu in spite of the presence of Cu in the meristem and the zone of effective N₂-fixation, as illustrated by chemical imaging. The strongly different responses observed in the two tested soils reflect the higher buffering capacity of the alkaline silt loam and showed that Cu mitigation and remediation strategies should especially target vineyards with acidic, sandy soils.

Fungicides at environmentally relevant concentrations can promote the proliferation of toxic bloom-forming cyanobacteria by inhibiting natural fungal parasite epidemics

Fungal parasites of the phylum Chytridiomycota (chytrids) are increasingly recognized as potent control agents of phytoplankton, including toxic bloom-forming cyanobacteria. We experimentally tested whether agricultural fungicides can interfere with natural epidemics caused by parasitic chytrid fungi and thereby favor cyanobacterial bloom formation. Specifically, we exposed the toxic bloom-forming cyanobacterium Planktothrix and its chytrid parasite Rhizophydium megarrhizum to different concentrations of the widely used agricultural fungicides tebuconazole and azoxystrobin, as well as the medical fungicide itraconazole (the latter was included to test its potential to suppress infection in vitro). Environmentally relevant concentrations of tebuconazole (20-200 μg/L) and azoxystrobin (1-30 μg/L) significantly decreased infection prevalence over a timespan of seven days, while not affecting the growth of uninfected cyanobacteria. Itraconazole suppressed infection completely. Our findings demonstrate that agricultural fungicide run-off has the potential to inhibit natural chytrid epidemics and, thereby, to promote the proliferation of toxic cyanobacteria.

Potential environmental risks of nanopesticides: Application of Cu(OH)2 nanopesticides to soil mitigates the degradation of neonicotinoid thiacloprid

Cu(OH)₂ nanopesticides and organic insecticides are continuously applied to soil at a temporal interval, while knowledge about the impact of Cu(OH)₂ nanopesticides on organic insecticides degradation is currently scarce, resulting in poorly comprehensive evaluation of the potential environmental risks of Cu(OH)₂ nanopesticides. Herein, a commercial Cu(OH)₂ nanopesticide formulation (NPF), the active ingredient of NPF (AI-NPF), the prepared Cu(OH)₂ nanotubes (NT) with comparable morphology and size to AI-NPF, and CuSO₄ were respectively applied to soil at normal doses (0.5, 5 and 50 mg/kg), followed by an application of neonicotinoid thiacloprid after an interval of 21 d, showing that NPF at doses of 5 and 50 mg/kg significantly (p < 0.05) mitigated thiacloprid degradation compared to control and CuSO₄. Furthermore, AI-NPF was the primary component that contributed to the mitigation effect of NPF, which was also validated by the NT. Large differences in the degradation efficiency of thiacloprid in sterilized and unsterilized soils with Cu(OH)₂ nanopesticides suggested that biodegradation was the primary process responsible for thiacloprid degradation, especially as chemical degradation was negligible. Besides a decrease of thiacloprid bioavailability due to adsorption by Cu(OH)₂ nanopesticides, we demonstrated that Cu(OH)₂ nanopesticides changed soil microbial communities, reduced nitrile hydratase activity and down-regulated thiacloprid-degradative nth gene abundance, which thus mitigated thiacloprid biodegradation. Clearly, this study shed light on the potential environmental risks of Cu(OH)₂ nanopesticide.

3-Chloro-5-trifluoromethylpyridine-2-carboxylic acid, a Metabolite of the Fungicide Fluopyram, Causes Growth Disorder in Vitis vinifera

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of 3-chloro-5-trifluoromethylpyridine-2-carboxylic acid (PCA), a metabolite of the fungicide fluopyram, on grapevine. During spring and summer 2015, grapevine growth disorders were observed in several countries in Europe. An unprecedented herbicide-like damage was diagnosed on leaves and flowers, causing significant loss of harvest. This study proposes PCA as the causing agent of the observed growth disorders. PCA was shown to cause leaf epinasty, impaired berry development that leads to crop loss, and root growth anomalies in Vitis vinifera similar to auxin herbicides in a dose-dependent manner. Using both field trials and greenhouse experiments, the present study provides first evidence for a link between the application of fluopyram in vineyards 2014, the formation of PCA, and the emergence of growth anomalies in 2015. Our data could be useful to optimize dosage, application time point, and other conditions for an application of fluopyram without phytotoxic effects.

Chlorothalonil tolerance of indole producing bacteria associated to wheat (Triticum turgidum L.) rhizosphere in the Yaqui Valley, Mexico

Chlorothalonil is a commonly used fungicide to control the karnal bunt caused by Tilletia indica Mitra in wheat production from the Yaqui Valley, Mexico. Here, the effect of Chlorothalonil on the growth of 132 bacterial strains associated with wheat rhizosphere from the Yaqui Valley was evaluated, as well as their ability to produce indoles. Thirty-three percent of the evaluated strains were inhibited by Chlorothalonil, being Bacillus and Paenibacillus the most inhibited genera, observing an inhibition >50% of their strains. In addition, 49% of the inhibited strains showed the ability to produce indoles (>5 μg/mL), where the genus Bacillus was the most abundant (80%). The remaining strains (67%) were tolerant to the evaluated fungicide, but only 37% of those showed the ability to produce indoles, which could be considered as Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR). These results showed that Chlorothalonil is not only an antifungal compound but also inhibits the growth of bacterial strains with the ability to produce indoles. Thus, the intensive application of fungicides to agro-systems needs more validation in order to develop sustainable agricultural practices for food production.

Using enzyme activities and soil microbial diversity to understand the effects of fluoxastrobin on microorganisms in fluvo-aquic soil

Whether now or in the foreseeable future, agricultural production cannot do without chemical pesticides. Strobilurin fungicides, including mitochondrial inhibitors, can easily enter the soil environment and causing pollution. Fluoxastrobin is one of the top-selling strobilurin fungicides. Limited information can be found in the literature on the environmental toxicity of fluoxastrobin in soil. It is essential to understand the effects of fluoxastrobin on microorganisms in fluvo-aquic soil. The present study used a Biolog-EcoPlate method to analyze the effects of fluoxastrobin on soil microbial diversity in groups exposed to 0.1, 1.0, and 2.5 mg/kg fluoxastrobin and in control groups at exposure and on days 7, 14, 21, 28, and 48. The effects of fluoxastrobin on enzyme activities (β-glucosidase, dehydrogenase, and urease) in the soil were also evaluated. The results indicated that the three tested enzyme activities were lower at each dose to a varying degree than those of the controls. The soil microbial diversity was shown to be affected according to the results of average well color development (AWCD) experiments. The present study aimed to assess environmental risks to terrestrial ecosystems under the stress of pesticide use. These results also enrich the basic data on fungicide toxicity to the soil environment and have a guiding significance for the rational use of pesticides and the sustainable utilization of resources.

Use of Pesticides and Health Risk among Farmers in Sunsari District, Nepal

BACKGROUND

An increasing widespread use of Pesticides is as an issue in the agricultural sector. Pesticides use is one of the occupational risks in farmers of low-income countries including Nepal. Objective of this study was to explore the health effects of Pesticides among agricultural farmers of Sunsari.

METHODS

A community based cross sectional study was carried out in Duhabi-Bhaluwa of Sunsari District, Nepal from September 2015 to February 2016. Non-probability sampling technique was used to enroll the total 300 study participants. Data were collected by face to face interview with farmers using pre-tested semi structured questionnaire. Data were recorded by reading the original container of the Pesticides.

RESULTS

Fungicides (60.3%), Herbicides (56.3%), pyrethrum (35.3%) and Organophophate (11.6%) Pesticides were commonly used by the agricultural farmers in their farms. The health problem within 48 hours after application of pesticides was reported by more than one-sixth (17%) of the farmers. Dizziness (74.5%) and headache (58.8%) were the most common health problems found among the farmers. Skin irritation (19.6%), nausea (13.7%), paraesthesia (9.8%), restlessness (5.8%), eye irritation (5.8%) and vomiting (1.9%) were also reported by pesticides handlers. Factors associated with health problems were hazardous pesticides use (AOR=26.95, CI 6.15 - 118.0), good knowledge on impacts of pesticides (AOR=3.16, CI 1.09-9.13), determination of wind direction first and spray (AOR=2.25, CI 1.08-4.67), working experience of 20-29 years on farm (AOR=3.38, CI 1.05-10.83).

CONCLUSIONS

One-sixth of the farmers reported health problems. Farmers working with hazardous Pesticides were in need of special attention in terms of safe handling, determing the wind direction and spray.

Brood size is reduced by half in birds feeding on flutriafol-treated seeds below the recommended application rate

Despite the efforts of the European Commission to implement measures that offset the detrimental effects of agricultural intensification, farmland bird populations continue to decline. Pesticide use has been pointed out as a major cause of decline, with growing concern about those agro-chemicals that act as endocrine disruptors. We report here on the effects of flutriafol, a ubiquitous systemic fungicide used for cereal seed treatment, on the physiology and reproduction of a declining gamebird. Captive red-legged partridges (Alectoris rufa; n = 11-13 pairs per treatment) were fed wheat treated with 0%, 20% or 100% of the flutriafol application rate during 25 days in late winter. We studied treatment effects on the reproductive performance, carotenoid-based coloration and cellular immune responsiveness of adult partridges, and their relationship with changes in oxidative stress biomarkers and plasma biochemistry. We also studied the effect of parental exposure on egg antioxidant content and on the survival, growth and cellular immune response of offspring. Exposed partridges experienced physiological effects (reduced levels of cholesterol and triglycerides), phenotypical effects (a reduction in the carotenoid-based pigmentation of their eye rings), and most importantly, severe adverse effects on reproduction: a reduced clutch size and fertile egg ratio, and an overall offspring production reduced by more than 50%. No effects on body condition or cellular immune response of either exposed adult or their surviving offspring were observed. These results, together with previous data on field exposure in wild partridges, demonstrate that seed treatment with flutriafol represents a risk for granivorous birds; they also highlight a need to improve the current regulation system used for foreseeing and preventing negative impacts of Plant Protection Products on wildlife.

Synthesis, Characterization, and Antifungal Property of Hydroxypropyltrimethyl Ammonium Chitosan Halogenated Acetates

Hydroxypropyltrimethyl ammonium chitosan halogenated acetates were successfully synthesized from six different haloacetic acids and hydroxypropyltrimethyl ammonium chloride chitosan (HACC) with high substitution degree, which are hydroxypropyltrimethyl ammonium chitosan bromacetate (HACBA), hydroxypropyltrimethyl ammonium chitosan chloroacetate (HACCA), hydroxypropyltrimethyl ammonium chitosan dichloroacetate (HACDCA), hydroxypropyltrimethyl ammonium chitosan trichloroacetate (HACTCA), hydroxypropyltrimethyl ammonium chitosan difluoroacetate (HACDFA), and hydroxypropyltrimethyl ammonium chitosan trifluoroacetate (HACTFA). These chitosan derivatives were synthesized by two steps: first, the hydroxypropyltrimethyl ammonium chloride chitosan was synthesized by chitosan and 3-chloro-2-hydroxypropyltrimethyl ammonium chloride. Then, hydroxypropyltrimethyl ammonium chitosan halogenated acetates were synthesized via ion exchange. The structures of chitosan derivatives were characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), ¹H Nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometer (¹H NMR), 13C Nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometer (13C NMR), and elemental analysis. Their antifungal activities against Colletotrichum lagenarium, Fusarium graminearum, Botrytis cinerea, and Phomopsis asparagi were investigated by hypha measurement in vitro. The results revealed that hydroxypropyltrimethyl ammonium chitosan halogenated acetates had better antifungal activities than chitosan and HACC. In particular, the inhibitory activity decreased in the order: HACTFA > HACDFA > HACTCA > HACDCA > HACCA > HACBA > HACC > chitosan, which was consistent with the electron-withdrawing property of different halogenated acetates. This experiment provides a potential idea for the preparation of new antifungal drugs by chitosan.

Developmental toxicity, oxidative stress and immunotoxicity induced by three strobilurins (pyraclostrobin, trifloxystrobin and picoxystrobin) in zebrafish embryos

Strobilurins is the most widely used class of fungicides, but is reported highly toxic to some aquatic organisms. In this study, zebrafish embryos were exposed to a range concentrations of three strobilurins (pyraclostrobin, trifloxystrobin and picoxystrobin) for 96 h post-fertilization (hpf) to assess their aquatic toxicity. The 96-h LC₅₀ values of pyraclostrobin, trifloxystrobin and picoxystrobin to embryos were 61, 55, 86 μg/L, respectively. A series of symptoms were observed in developmental embryos during acute exposure, including decreased heartbeat, hatching inhibition, growth regression, and morphological deformities. Moreover, the three fungicides induced oxidative stress in embryos through increasing reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malonaldehyde (MDA) contents, inhibiting superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity and glutathione (GSH) content as well as differently changing catalase (CAT) activity and mRNA levels of genes related to antioxidant system (Mn-sod, Cu/Zn-sod, Cat, Nrf2, Ucp2 and Bcl2). In addition, exposure to the three strobilurins resulted in significant upregulation of IFN and CC-chem as well as differently changed expressions of TNFa, IL-1b, C1C and IL-8, which related to the innate immune system, suggesting that these fungicides caused immunotoxicity during zebrafish embryo development. The different response of enzymes and genes in embryos exposed to the three fungicides might be the cause that leads to the difference of their toxicity. This work made a comparison of the toxicity of three strobilurins to zebrafish embryos on multi-levels and would provide a better understanding of the toxic effects of strobilurins on aquatic organisms.

Effects of the Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals, Vinclozolin and Polychlorinated Biphenyls, on Physiological and Sociosexual Phenotypes in F2 Generation Sprague-Dawley Rats

BACKGROUND

Exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) during gestation influences development of the F1 generation offspring and can result in disease and dysfunction in adulthood. Limited evidence suggests consequences on the F2 generation, exposed as germ cells within the F1 fetus. These F2s provide a unique window into the programming effects of EDCs.

OBJECTIVE

This study assessed intergenerational effects of EDC exposure on adult physiology and behavior in Sprague-Dawley rats.

METHODS

Pregnant rats were exposed to either a polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) mixture, Aroclor 1,221 (A1221), the fungicide vinclozolin (VIN), or the vehicle (VEH) (6% dimethylsulfoxide in sesame oil) alone. A1221 is weakly estrogenic, while VIN is antiandrogenic, enabling us to compare different classes of EDCs. The F1 male and female offspring were bred to generate the paternal- and maternal-lineage F2 generation. This F2 generation was assessed for physiological outcomes, ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs), and sexual behavior in adulthood.

RESULTS

Each EDC caused phenotypic effects in a sex- and lineage-dependent manner. The most robustly affected group was the paternal-lineage males. F2 VIN paternal male descendants had increased body weight throughout the lifespan, lower concentrations of circulating estradiol, and lower adrenal and testicular indices. Both VIN and A1221 paternal-lineage males also exhibited the greatest number of changes in the characteristics of USVs in response to an opposite-sex animal and changes in sexual behaviors in a mating test.

CONCLUSION

Exposure of rats to EDCs at the germ cell stage led to differences in the physiological and behavioral phenotype later in life, especially in males. This finding has implications for multigenerational physiological and reproductive health in wildlife and humans. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP3550.

Combined exposure to sublethal concentrations of an insecticide and a fungicide affect feeding, ovary development and longevity in a solitary bee

Pollinators in agroecosystems are often exposed to pesticide mixtures. Even at low concentrations, the effects of these mixtures on bee populations are difficult to predict due to potential synergistic interactions. In this paper, we orally exposed newly emerged females of the solitary bee Osmia bicornis to environmentally realistic levels of clothianidin (neonicotinoid insecticide) and propiconazole (fungicide), singly and in combination. The amount of feeding solution consumed was highest in bees exposed to the neonicotinoid, and lowest in bees exposed to the pesticide mixture. Ovary maturation and longevity of bees of the neonicotinoid and the fungicide treatments did not differ from those of control bees. By contrast, bees exposed to the pesticide mixture showed slow ovary maturation and decreased longevity. We found a synergistic interaction between the neonicotinoid and the fungicide on survival probability. We also found an interaction between treatment and emergence time (an indicator of physiological condition) on longevity. Longevity was negatively correlated to physiological condition only in the fungicide and the mixture treatments. Delayed ovary maturation and premature death imply a shortened nesting period (highly correlated to fecundity in Osmia). Our findings provide a mechanism to explain the observed dynamics of solitary bee populations exposed to multiple chemical residues in agricultural environments.

Effects of Field-Realistic Concentrations of Carbendazim on Survival and Physiology in Forager Honey Bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae)

Carbendazim is nowadays widely used to control fungus in various nectariferous crops. Little is known about how honey bees, Apis mellifera L. (Hymenoptera: Apidae), respond to carbendazim exposure. In this study, the effects of field-realistic concentrations of carbendazim (4.516, 0.4516, and 0.04516 ppm) on the survival, biomarker enzyme activity (AChE, GST, CarE, and P450), and four antimicrobial peptide gene expression (hymenoptaecin, defensin, apidaecin, and abaecin) in forager honey bees were evaluated. The forager bees were fed with the pesticides for 10 d. The results showed that the field-realistic concentrations of carbendazim did not affect survival; activities of AChE, GST, and CarE; and expression levels of defensin and abaecin in forager bees. However, 4.516, 0.4516, and 0.04516 ppm of carbendazim all significantly inhibited the expression of hymenoptaecin and apidaecin (P < 0.01), while P450 (7-ethoxycoumarin-O-deethylase) activity was downregulated by 4.516 ppm of carbendazim (P < 0.05). Our results indicate that the field-realistic concentrations of carbendazim may alter the immune response and P450-mediated detoxification of honey bees. Thus, carbendazim should be discreetly used on nectariferous crops during florescence.

Occupational pesticide use and Parkinson's disease in the Parkinson Environment Gene (PEG) study

OBJECTIVE

To study the influence of occupational pesticide use on Parkinson's disease (PD) in a population with information on various occupational, residential, and household sources of pesticide exposure.

METHODS

In a population-based case control study in Central California, we used structured interviews to collect occupational history details including pesticide use in jobs, duration of use, product names, and personal protective equipment use from 360 PD cases and 827 controls. We linked reported products to California's pesticide product label database and identified pesticide active ingredients and occupational use by chemical class including fungicides, insecticides, and herbicides. Employing unconditional logistic regression, we estimated odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals for PD and occupational pesticide use.

RESULTS

Ever occupational use of carbamates increased risk of PD by 455%, while organophosphorus (OP) and organochlorine (OC) pesticide use doubled risk. PD risk increased 110-211% with ever occupational use of fungicides, herbicides, and insecticides. Using any pesticide occupationally for >10years doubled the risk of PD compared with no occupational pesticide use. Surprisingly, we estimated higher risks among those reporting use of personal protective equipment (PPE).

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings provide additional evidence that occupational pesticide exposures increase PD risk. This was the case even after controlling for other sources of pesticide exposure. Specifically, risk increased with occupational use of carbamates, OPs, and OCs, as well as of fungicides, herbicides, or insecticides. Interestingly, some types of PPE use may not provide adequate protection during pesticide applications.

Neural Repair Strategies for Parkinson's Disease: Insights from Primate Models

Nonhuman primate models of Parkinson's disease (PD) have been invaluable to our understanding of the human disease and in the advancement of novel therapies for its treatment. In this review, we attempt to give a brief overview of the animal models of PD currently used, with a more comprehensive focus on the advantages and disadvantages presented by their use in the nonhuman primate. In particular, discussion addresses the 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA), 1-methyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydopyridine (MPTP), rotenone, paraquat, and maneb parkinsonian models. Additionally, the role of primate PD models in the development of novel therapies, such as trophic factor delivery, grafting, and deep brain stimulation, are described. Finally, the contribution of primate PD models to our understanding of the etiology and pathology of human PD is discussed.

Prenatal Residential Proximity to Agricultural Pesticide Use and IQ in 7-Year-Old Children

BACKGROUND

Residential proximity to agricultural pesticide use has been associated with neural tube defects and autism, but more subtle outcomes such as cognition have not been studied.

OBJECTIVES

We evaluated the relationship between prenatal residential proximity to agricultural use of potentially neurotoxic pesticides and neurodevelopment in 7-year-old children.

METHODS

Participants included mothers and children (n=283) living in the agricultural Salinas Valley of California enrolled in the Center for the Health Assessment of Mothers and Children of Salinas (CHAMACOS) study. We estimated agricultural pesticide use within 1 km of maternal residences during pregnancy using a geographic information system, residential location, and California’s comprehensive agricultural Pesticide Use Report data. We used regression models to evaluate prenatal residential proximity to agricultural use of five potentially neurotoxic pesticide groups (organophosphates, carbamates, pyrethroids, neonicotinoids, and manganese fungicides) and five individual organophosphates (acephate, chlorpyrifos, diazinon, malathion, and oxydemeton-methyl) and cognition in 7-year-old children. All models included prenatal urinary dialkyl phosphate metabolite concentrations.

RESULTS

We observed a decrease of 2.2 points [95% confidence interval (CI): −3.9, −0.5] in Full-Scale IQ and 2.9 points (95% CI: −4.4, −1.3) in Verbal Comprehension for each standard deviation increase in toxicity-weighted use of organophosphate pesticides. In separate models, we observed similar decrements in Full-Scale IQ with each standard deviation increase of use for two organophosphates (acephate and oxydemeton-methyl) and three neurotoxic pesticide groups (pyrethroids, neonicotinoids, and manganese fungicides).

CONCLUSIONS

This study identified potential relationships between maternal residential proximity to agricultural use of neurotoxic pesticides and poorer neurodevelopment in children. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP504.

Acute exposure to the penconazole-containing fungicide Topas partially augments antioxidant potential in goldfish tissues

Penconazole is a systemic fungicide commonly used in agriculture as the commercial preparation Topas. Although triazole fungicides are widely found in the aquatic environment, little is known about their acute toxicity on fish. In this study we assessed the effects of short-term exposure to Topas on some parameters of homeostasis of reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as the levels of markers of oxidative stress and parameters of the antioxidant defense system of goldfish (Carassius auratus L.). Gills appeared to be the main target organ of Topas toxicity, showing the greatest number of parameters affected. Gills of Topas-treated fish showed a higher content of low (L-SH) and high (H-SH) molecular mass thiols and higher activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, glutathione reductase (GR), glutathione-S-transferase (GST), and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH) as well as reduced carbonyl protein content (CP), as compared with those in the control group. In the liver, goldfish exposure to 15-25mgL^-1 Topas resulted in a higher L-SH and H-SH content, but lower CP levels and activity of GST. In kidney, Topas exposure resulted in higher activities of glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and G6PDH, but lower L-SH content and activity of GST. The results of this study indicate that acute goldfish exposure to the triazole fungicide Topas increased efficiency of the antioxidant system in fish gills, liver, and kidney. This could indicate the development of low intensity oxidative stress which up-regulates defense mechanisms responsible for protection of goldfish against deleterious ROS effects.

Effect of edible coatings with essential oils on the quality of red raspberries over shelf-life

BACKGROUND

The objective of the present work was to develop strategies for increasing the shelf-life of red raspberries (Rubus idaeus L.), by preventing microorganism growth.

RESULTS

Fruits coated with alginate plus lemon essential oil (0.2%) or orange essential oil (0.1%) after 15 days of storage had less red skin than the remaining samples. The less red color verified in these samples was also coincident with the lower concentration of anthocyanins at the end of the experiment as well as the lower capacity for scavenging ABTS free radicals or quenching singlet oxygen. Cyanidin and pelargonidin glucosides were found in raspberries fruits. The edible coatings supplemented with the essential oil of orange either at 0.1% or 0.2% were very efficient for controlling yeast and mold growth after 15 days of storage. To control the development of aerobic mesophilic bacteria the use of essential oil of lemon 0.2% and essential oil of orange 0.1% were the most efficient.

CONCLUSION

The application of the film improved post-harvest quality of raspberry, since the addition of essential oils of citrus films promoted to the inhibitory effect of fungi and bacteria growth after 15 days of storage, without changing quality parameters. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.

Occupational exposure to asthmagens and adult onset wheeze and lung function in people who did not have childhood wheeze: A 50-year cohort study

BACKGROUND

There are few prospective studies that relate the development of adult respiratory disease with exposure to occupational asthmagens.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the risk of adult onset wheeze (AOW) and obstructive lung function associated with occupational exposures over 50years.

METHODS

A population-based randomly selected cohort of children who had not had asthma or wheezing illness, recruited in 1964 at age 10-15years, was followed-up in 1989, 1995, 2001 and 2014 by spirometry and respiratory questionnaire. Occupational histories were obtained in 2014 and occupational exposures determined with an asthma-specific job exposure matrix. The risk of AOW and lung function impairment was analysed in subjects without childhood wheeze using logistic regression and linear mixed effects models.

RESULTS

All 237 subjects (mean age: 61years, 47% male, 52% ever smoked) who took part in the 2014 follow-up had completed spirometry. Among those who did not have childhood wheeze, spirometry was measured in 93 subjects in 1989, in 312 in 1995 and in 270 subjects in 2001 follow-up. For longitudinal analysis of changes in FEV1 between 1989 and 2014 spirometry records were available on 191 subjects at three time points and on 45 subjects at two time points, with a total number of 663 records. AOW and FEV1<LLN were associated with occupational exposure to food-related asthmagens (adjusted odds ratios (adjORs) 95% CI: 2.7 [1.4, 5.1] and 2.9 [1.1, 7.7]) and biocides/fungicides (adjOR 95% CI: 1.8 [1.1, 3.1] and 3.4 [1.1, 10.8]), with evident dose-response effect (p-trends<0.05). Exposure to food-related asthmagens was also associated with reduced FEV1, FVC and FEF25-75% (adjusted regression coefficients 95% CI: -7.2 [-12.0, -2.4], -6.2 [-10.9, -1.4], and -13.3[-23.4, -3.3]). Exposure to wood dust was independently associated with AOW, obstructive lung function and reduced FEF25-75%. Excess FEV1 decline of 6-8ml/year was observed with occupational exposure to any asthmagen, biocides/fungicides and food-related asthmagens (p<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

This longitudinal study confirmed previous findings of increased risks of adult onset wheezing illness with occupational exposure to specific asthmagens. A novel finding was the identification of food-related asthmagens and biocides/fungicides as potential new occupational risk factors for lung function impairment in adults without childhood wheeze.

[Dangerous cucumbers - Leylls syndrome]

Leylls syndrome (syndrome of toxic epidermal necrolysis) is a rare disease, firstly described by Scottish doctor of medicine Allan Lyell in 1956. It is characterized by huge skin and mucosa necrolysis, which affects at least 30 % of body surface, and systemic symptoms. According to the frequency of the occurrence it is an extremely rare condition, with an incidence of 0.5-2 cases per million residents per year. Leylls syndrome is considered as a toxoallergic reaction, triggered mostly by some medication and it is associated with a very high mortality rate (in the literature reported between 30 to 90 %). Adequate and timely local and systemic treatment at the Intensive Care Unit or at the specialized clinic can improve the overall poor prognosis of the patients. In our case report we describe a very rare case of the Lyells syndrome after exposure to the antifungal organosulfur compound, which is widely used by the homegardners and farmers.

Efficiency of Artemisia nilagirica (Clarke) Pamp. essential oil as a mycotoxicant against postharvest mycobiota of table grapes

BACKGROUND

In order to get a potent botanical fungicide for the management of fungal decay of table grapes, an experiment was conducted in which 20 essential oils of higher plants were screened at 0.33 µL mL(-1) against dominant fungi causing decay of table grapes, including Aspergillus flavus, A. niger and A. ochraceus. Furthermore, the minimum inhibitory/fungicidal concentration, fungitoxic spectrum and mycotoxin inhibition activity of the most potent oil were determined. The efficacy of the most potent oil in preservation of table grapes, along with organoleptic evaluation, was also carried out by storing 1 kg of grapes in the oil vapour.

RESULTS

Artemisia nilagirica oil was found to be most toxic, exhibiting 100% mycelia inhibition of all test fungi. Moreover, 0.29 µL mL(-1) A. nilagirica oil was fungistatic and 0.58 µL mL(-1) was fungicidal for all tested species of Aspergillus. The oil exhibited a broad range of fungitoxicity against other grape berry-rotting fungi. Artemisia nilagirica oil completely suppressed the growth and mycotoxin (AFB1 and OTA) secretion of aflatoxigenic and ochratoxigenic strains of Aspergillus at 1.6 µL mL(-1) . During the in vivo experiment, fumigation of 1 kg of table grapes with 200 and 300 µL dosage of A. nilagirica oil enhanced the shelf life for up to 9 days. The oil did not show any phytotoxic effect. Besides, oil application did not substantively change the sensory properties of the fruits.

CONCLUSION

Artemisia nilagirica oil can be used as an alternative botanical fungicide for the control of fruit-rotting fungi of stored grapes.

Activated carbons from end-products of tree nut and tree fruit production as sorbents for removing methyl bromide in ventilation effluent following postharvest chamber fumigation

End-products of tree nuts and tree fruits grown in California, USA were evaluated for the ability to remove methyl bromide (MB) from ventilation effluent following postharvest chamber fumigation. Activated carbon sorbents from walnut and almond shells as well as peach and prune pits were prepared using different methods of pyrolysis, activation, and quenching. Each source and preparation was evaluated for yield from starting material (%, m/m) and performance on tests where MB-containing airstreams were directed through a columnar bed of the activated carbon in an experimental apparatus, termed a parallel adsorbent column tester, which was constructed as a scaled-down model of a chamber ventilation system. We report the number of doses needed to first observe the breakthrough of MB downstream of the bed and the capacity of the activated carbon for MB (%, m/m) based on a fractional percentage of MB mass sorbed at breakthrough relative to mass of the bed prior to testing. Results were based on a novel application of solid-phase microextraction with time-weighted averaging sampling of MB concentration in airstreams, which was quantitative across the range of fumigation-relevant conditions and statistically unaffected by relative humidity. Activated carbons from prune pits, prepared either by steam activation or carbon dioxide activation coupled to water quenching, received the greatest number of doses prior to breakthrough and had the highest capacity, approximately 12-14%, outperforming a commercially marketed activated carbon derived from coconut shells. Experimental evidence is presented that links discrepancy in performance to the relative potential for activated carbons to preferentially sorb water vapor relative to MB.

Itraconazole treatment reduces Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis prevalence and increases overwinter field survival in juvenile Cascades frogs

The global spread of the fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) has led to widespread extirpation of amphibian populations. During an intervention aimed at stabilizing at-risk populations, we treated wild-caught Cascades frogs Rana cascadae with the antifungal drug itraconazole. In fall 2012, we collected 60 recently metamorphosed R. cascadae from 1 of the 11 remnant populations in the Cascades Mountains (CA, USA). Of these, 30 randomly selected frogs were treated with itraconazole and the other 30 frogs served as experimental controls; all were released at the capture site. Bd prevalence was low at the time of treatment and did not differ between treated frogs and controls immediately following treatment. Following release, Bd prevalence gradually increased in controls but not in treated frogs, with noticeable (but still non-significant) differences 3 wk after treatment (27% [4/15] vs. 0% [0/13]) and strong differences 5 wk after treatment (67% [8/12] vs. 13% [1/8]). We did not detect any differences in Bd prevalence and load between experimental controls and untreated wild frogs during this time period. In spring 2013, we recaptured 7 treated frogs but none of the experimental control frogs, suggesting that over-winter survival was higher for treated frogs. The itraconazole treatment did appear to reduce growth rates: treated frogs weighed 22% less than control frogs 3 wk after treatment (0.7 vs. 0.9 g) and were 9% shorter than control frogs 5 wk after treatment (18.4 vs. 20.2 mm). However, for critically small populations, increased survival of the most at-risk life stage could prevent or delay extinction. Our results show that itraconazole treatment can be effective against Bd infection in wild amphibians, and therefore the beneficial effects on survivorship may outweigh the detrimental effects on growth.

Development of controlled release nanoformulations of carbendazim employing amphiphilic polymers and their bioefficacy evaluation against Rhizoctonia solani

Controlled release nanoformulations of carbendazim (Methyl 1H-benzimidazol-2-ylcarbamate), a systemic fungicide, have been prepared using laboratory synthesized poly(ethylene glycols) (PEGs)-based functionalized amphiphilic copolymers. The release kinetics of carbendazim from developed controlled release (CR) formulations was studied and compared with that of the commercially available 50% Wettable Powder (WP). Further, the bioefficacy evaluation of developed formulations was done against plant pathogenic fungi Rhizoctonia solani by the poison food technique method. The release of maximum amount of carbendazim from developed formulations was dependent on the molecular weight of PEGs and was found to increase with increasing molecular weights. The range of carbendazim release was found to be between 10th to 35th day as compared to commercial formulation which was up to 7th day. The diffusion exponent (n value) of carbendazim in water ranged from 0.37 to 0.52 in the tested formulations. The half-release (t1/2) values ranged between 9.47 and 24.20 days, and the period of optimum availability (POA) of carbendazim ranged from 9.15 to 26.63 days. Also, ED50 values of the developed formulations vary from 0.40 to 0.74 mg L(-1). These formulations can be used to optimize the release of carbendazim to achieve disease control for the desired period depending on the matrix of the polymer used.

Aerial application of mancozeb and urinary ethylene thiourea (ETU) concentrations among pregnant women in Costa Rica: the Infants' Environmental Health Study (ISA)

BACKGROUND

Mancozeb and its main metabolite ethylene thiourea (ETU) may alter thyroid function; thyroid hormones are essential for fetal brain development. In Costa Rica, mancozeb is aerially sprayed at large-scale banana plantations on a weekly basis.

OBJECTIVES

Our goals were to evaluate urinary ETU concentrations in pregnant women living near large-scale banana plantations, compare their estimated daily intake (EDI) with established reference doses (RfDs), and identify factors that predict their urinary ETU concentrations.

METHODS

We enrolled 451 pregnant women from Matina County, Costa Rica, which has large-scale banana production. We visited 445 women up to three times during pregnancy to obtain urine samples (n = 872) and information on factors that possibly influence exposure. We determined urinary ETU concentrations using liquid chromatography mass spectrometry.

RESULTS

Pregnant women's median urinary ETU concentrations were more than five times higher than those reported for other general populations. Seventy-two percent of the women had EDIs above the RfD. Women who lived closest (1st quartile, < 48 m) to banana plantations on average had a 45% (95% CI: 23, 72%) higher urinary ETU compared with women who lived farthest away (4th quartile, ≥ 565 m). Compared with the other women, ETU was also higher in women who washed agricultural work clothes on the day before sampling (11%; 95% CI: 4.9, 17%), women who worked in agriculture during pregnancy (19%; 95% CI: 9.3, 29%), and immigrant women (6.2%; 95% CI: 1.0, 13%).

CONCLUSIONS

The pregnant women's urinary ETU concentrations are of concern, and the principal source of exposure is likely to be aerial spraying of mancozeb. The factors predicting ETU provide insight into possibilities for exposure reduction.

Nature, nurture and epigenetics

Real life by definition combines heritability (e.g., the legacy of exposures) and experience (e.g. stress during sensitive or 'critical' periods), but how to study or even model this interaction has proven difficult. The hoary concept of evaluating traits according to nature versus nurture continues to persist despite repeated demonstrations that it retards, rather than advances, our understanding of biological processes. Behavioral genetics has proven the obvious, that genes influence behavior and, vice versa, that behavior influences genes. The concept of Genes X Environment (G X E) and its modern variants was viewed as an improvement on nature-nurture but has proven that, except in rare instances, it is not possible to fractionate phenotypes into these constituent elements. The entanglement inherent in terms such as nature-nurture or G X E is a Gordian knot that cannot be dissected or even split. Given that the world today is not what it was less than a century ago, yet the arbitrator (differential survival and reproduction) has stayed constant, de novo principles and practices are needed to better predict what the future holds. Put simply, the transformation that is now occurring within and between individuals as a product of global endocrine disruption is quite independent of what has been regarded as evolution by selection. This new perspective should focus on how epigenetic modifications might revise approaches to understand how the phenotype and, in particular its components, is shaped. In this review we summarize the literature in this developing area, focusing on our research on the fungicide vinclozolin.

Evaluation of cinnamon essential oil microemulsion and its vapor phase for controlling postharvest gray mold of pears (Pyrus pyrifolia)

BACKGROUND

Essential oil of cinnamon (CM) is a potential alternative to chemical fungicides. Thus this work aimed to investigate the possible effects of CM microemulsions on decay developments and qualitative properties of pears.

RESULTS

The decay incidence of samples treated with 500 µg L⁻¹ microemulsion was significantly reduced by 18.7% in comparison to that of 500 µg L⁻¹ non-microemulsion after 4 days' storage at 20 °C. In the vapor phase, the CM microemulsion with the lowest concentration had the best control for decay incidence and lesion diameter. The interval between inoculations also influenced decay development. Pears treated with Botrytis cinerea and immediately followed by CM microemulsion showed the lowest decay incidence. Moreover, in the natural decay experiment, the percentage of rotted pears was 3.8% in the CM microemulsion treatment and 5.8% in the control. CM microemulsion delayed the loss of ascorbic acid, yet it had no significant influence on pear qualities such as firmness and color.

CONCLUSION

CM microemulsion may be an alternative way to control the gray mold of pears without a negative influence on its qualities.

Integrated biological and chemical control of rice sheath blight by Bacillus subtilis NJ-18 and jinggangmycin

BACKGROUND

Sheath blight caused by Rhizoctonia solani Kühn is a major disease of rice that greatly reduces yield and grain quality and jinggangmycin is the most widely used fungicide to control this disease in China. Bacillus subtilis NJ-18 has broad antimicrobial activity to many phytopathogenic bacteria and fungi; it is especially effective against Rhizoctonia solani. Laboratory, greenhouse and field tests were conducted to determine the effect of combining the biological control agent Bacillus subtilis NJ-18 with the fungicide jinggangmycin for control of rice sheath blight.

RESULTS

Growth of NJ-18 in vitro was not affected by jinggangmycin. In a greenhouse experiment, disease control was greater with a mixture of NJ-18 and jinggangmycin than with either alone; a mixture of NJ-18 at 10(8)  cfu mL(-1) and jinggangmycin at 50 or 100 mg L(-1) reduced lesion length by 35% and 20%, respectively, and the combinations showed a synergistic action. In three field trials, disease control was significantly greater with a mixture of NJ-18 at 10(8)  cfu mL(-1) and jinggangmycin at 75 or 150 g a.i. ha(-1) than with either component alone.

CONCLUSION

The results of the study indicate that, when Bacillus subtilis NJ-18 strain was combined with jinggangmycin, there was an increased suppression of rice sheath blight, and thus could provide an alternative disease control option.

Bioefficacy, residue dynamics and safety assessment of the combination fungicide trifloxystrobin 25% + tebuconazole 50%-75 WG in managing early blight of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.)

This paper reports the in vitro and in vivo bioefficacy of a combination fungicide trifloxystrobin (25%) + tebuconazole (50%) against early blight disease of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) caused by Alternaria solani and their corresponding pre-harvest intervals (PHI) with reference to the maximum residue limits (European Union). Bioefficacy of the test fungicide combination revealed that in vitro conditions manifested the best control (75.1%) at 350 mg kg(-1) against 76.2% control under field conditions. A sample preparation method based on ethyl acetate extraction and estimation by LC-MS multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) was validated in tomato fruits at 0.01 mg/kg and dissipation studies were conducted in field at single and double doses. The residues of both the compounds on all the sampling days were below the European Union maximum residue limits (EU-MRLs) and the maximum permissible intakes (MPIs) were calculated on the basis of prescribed acceptable daily intake (ADI). The combined bioefficacy and residue dynamics information will support label-claim of this fungicide combination for the management of early blight in tomato.

Effects of copper fungicide residues on the microbial function of vineyard soils

The use of copper-based fungicides leads to an accumulation of copper (Cu) in vineyard soils, potentially causing adverse effects to the microbial function and fertility of the soil. This study used a soil microcosm approach to assess the effects of Cu accumulation on microbial function in vineyard soils. Surface soil samples were collected from 10 vineyards and a number of un-impacted reference sites in each of three different viticultural regions of Australia. The field-collected soils were transferred to microcosms and maintained for up to 93 days in the laboratory at 20-22 °C and 60 % of their maximum water-holding capacity. The microbial function of the soils was indicated by measuring phosphomonoesterase, arylsulfatase, urease, and phenol oxidase activities. In general, the vineyard soils had greater concentrations of Cu and lower enzyme activities than in the reference soils, although a weak negative relationship between Cu and enzyme activity could only be found for phosphomonoesterase activity. The results show that soil physical-chemical properties (i.e., organic carbon, pH) are greater determinants of soil enzyme activity than increased soil Cu concentration at the Cu concentrations present in vineyard soils.

In vitro influences of TiO₂ nanoparticles on barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) tissue culture

In the last decades, extensive research on the effects of nano-TiO₂ on plant systems and different microorganisms has confirmed its photocatalytic and antimicrobial activity. However, there is no report on its application in plant cell and tissue culture as well as its role in eliminating contaminating microorganisms in tissue culture. In this work, barley mature embryos were cultured in Murashige and Skoog medium with four concentrations (0, 10, 30, 60 μg/ml) of TiO₂ suspension in four repetitions. Quantitative and qualitative characteristics of calli were analyzed after each subculture. Data analysis for calli number in the first culture and callus size in all three cultures showed that the effect of treatment was significant at p > 0.95. As a result, quantitative features such as callus color, shape, embryogenesis, etc. were completely similar in both control and TiO₂ nanoparticle treatments; there is no doubt that TiO₂ nanoparticles could dramatically increase callugenesis and the size of calli. As well, TiO₂ nanoparticles are effective bactericides with an aseptic effect, causing no negative change in the quality of the callus. It is necessary to do more complementary works to identify mechanisms involved for the increased calli size and embryogenesis of explants in darkness.

[Azole resistance in Aspergillus fumigatus in the Netherlands--increase due to environmental fungicides?]

The mould Aspergillus fumigatus may develop mechanisms that confer resistance to itraconazole, voriconazole and posaconazole. In the Netherlands a dominant resistance mechanism referred to as TR/L98H is found. In A. fumigatus isolates recovered from clinical samples in Dutch hospitals the prevalence of azole resistance varied between 0.8% and 9.4%. The TR/L98H resistance mechanism probably develops in our environment, as azoles are frequently used for crop protection and material preservation. It is likely that breathing in the resistant spores of these strains from the environment leads to clinical infection. More research is needed to understand the environmental route of resistance development and to enable effective measures to prevent this occurring. Azole resistance is associated with treatment failure. Of 8 patients with azole-resistant invasive aspergillosis 7 died within 12 weeks of diagnosis. Alternative treatment regimens might include lipid-formulation of amphotericin B or a combination of voriconazole and an echinocandin, but there is little data available to support these choices. Physicians who treat patients with Aspergillus diseases should be aware of the possibility of azole resistance, also in azole-naïve patients.

Pesticide risk assessment in flower greenhouses in Argentina: the importance of manipulating concentrated products

An evaluation of the Potential Dermal Exposure of workers to endosulfan and procymidone at the mix/load and application stages was done in small floricultural production units in Argentina. Seven experiments were performed with different operators under typical greenhouse conditions, based on the whole body dosimetry methodology. These results indicate that the mean Potential Dermal Exposure of the application step was 45.0 ± 55.0 mL h(-1) with the highest proportion on torso, head, arms and hands. When the mix/load and application stages were compared, the first was found to contribute the most to the total exposure. Also, the Margin of Safety for the different operations was calculated, and a pesticide surrogate was developed and used to make comparative evaluations of hand exposure for different groups of operators. These results emphasize the importance of the mix/load stage in the exposure process.