Hotspot sheep scab management: A community-based regional approach in England

BACKGROUND

Ovine psoroptic mange (sheep scab), caused by an infestation of the mite Psoroptes ovis, leads to clinical disease, economic loss and severely compromised animal welfare. Here, a community-based approach to the management of scab in three high-risk areas of England is described.

METHODS

For each of the 254 farms included in the study, an initial survey of their clinical sheep scab history was followed up by a blood test (ELISA) to detect the presence of antibodies to P. ovis. This facilitated the coordination of treatment across groups of farms in each region. Blood testing was then repeated at the end of the treatment programme.

RESULTS

On the first blood test in 2021/2022, 25.6% (±5.5%) of the flocks were positive for sheep scab. On the second test in 2022/2023, 9% (±3.94%) of the flocks tested were positive, showing a highly statistically significant reduction in prevalence overall, but with strong regional variation.

LIMITATIONS

generating an understanding of the flock-level nature of the blood test and confidence in its detection of scab where clinical signs were not apparent provided ongoing challenges.

CONCLUSIONS

The programme demonstrated that a focused community-based approach can be used to significantly reduce the prevalence of sheep scab in high-risk areas of England. The use of the blood test on all farms allowed the identification of subclinical sheep scab. The programme provides an effective model for sheep scab management on a national scale.

Treatment of sheep prior to movement: its contribution to an effective scab (psoroptic mange) management strategy

BACKGROUND

Ovine psoroptic mange (sheep scab) is an important disease of sheep worldwide caused by the parasitic mite, Psoroptes ovis. It has a negative impact on animal welfare and leads to significant economic losses for the sheep industry. Effective and targeted management is required to limit its transmission.

METHODS

A stochastic metapopulation model of sheep scab transmission is used to investigate the contribution of the treatment of sheep prior to movements to sales, gatherings (predominantly markets) and away grazing to the reduction of prevalence of farms with scab in Great Britain.

RESULTS

Treatment prior to movement to gatherings resulted in an 86% reduction in the overall prevalence of farms with scab and was more effective at reducing the overall prevalence of farms with scab than treatment before other categories of movements. The relative risk of farms having scab infection was inversely related to the percentage of farms which treated, but this relationship was not linear, with the biggest declines in the prevalence of farms with scab being achieved by small percentages of farms treating; a 50% relative reduction in the farm prevalence was achieved with only 15% of farms treating prior to gathering movements.

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest that pre-movement treatment of sheep could make an important contribution to national scab control and, in practice, the approach could be more highly targeted if used in conjunction with known geographic and management risk factors for scab.

Predicting the distribution of Ixodes ricinus and Dermacentor reticulatus in Europe: a comparison of climate niche modelling approaches

BACKGROUND

The ticks Ixodes ricinus and Dermacentor reticulatus are two of the most important vectors in Europe. Climate niche modelling has been used in many studies to attempt to explain their distribution and to predict changes under a range of climate change scenarios. The aim of this study was to assess the ability of different climate niche modelling approaches to explain the known distribution of I. ricinus and D. reticulatus in Europe.

METHODS

A series of climate niche models, using different combinations of input data, were constructed and assessed. Species occurrence records obtained from systematic literature searches and Global Biodiversity Information Facility data were thinned to different degrees to remove sampling spatial bias. Four sources of climate data were used: bioclimatic variables, WorldClim, TerraClimate and MODIS satellite-derived data. Eight different model training extents were examined and three modelling frameworks were used: maximum entropy, generalised additive models and random forest models. The results were validated through internal cross-validation, comparison with an external independent dataset and expert opinion.

RESULTS

The performance metrics and predictive ability of the different modelling approaches varied significantly within and between each species. Different combinations were better able to define the distribution of each of the two species. However, no single approach was considered fully able to capture the known distribution of the species. When considering the mean of the performance metrics of internal and external validation, 24 models for I. ricinus and 11 models for D. reticulatus of the 96 constructed were considered adequate according to the following criteria: area under the receiver-operating characteristic curve > 0.7; true skill statistic > 0.4; Miller's calibration slope 0.25 above or below 1; Boyce index > 0.9; omission rate < 0.15.

CONCLUSIONS

This comprehensive analysis suggests that there is no single 'best practice' climate modelling approach to account for the distribution of these tick species. This has important implications for attempts to predict climate-mediated impacts on future tick distribution. It is suggested here that climate variables alone are not sufficient; habitat type, host availability and anthropogenic impacts, not included in current modelling approaches, could contribute to determining tick presence or absence at the local or regional scale.

Ticks and tick-borne pathogens of domestic animals in Somalia and neighbouring regions of Ethiopia and Kenya

Ticks and tick-borne pathogens (TBPs) of domestic animals in Somalia and neighbouring regions of Ethiopia and Kenya are reviewed to identify knowledge gaps in these regions, where unrestricted livestock movements across borders are common. Major scientific databases, such as PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, CABI, and Google Scholar were searched, to retrieve articles based on papers published between 1960 and March 2023. Thirty-one tick species representing six genera (Rhipicephalus, Hyalomma, Amblyomma, Haemaphysalis, Ornithodoros and Argas) were reported to infest domestic animals, mainly livestock. Overall, the most represented species were Rhipicephalus pulchellus (up to 60% of specimens identified), followed by Hyalomma dromedarii (up to 57%), Hyalomma truncatum (up to 57%), Amblyomma lepidum (up to 21%), Amblyomma variegatum (up to 21%) and Amblyomma gemma (up to 19%), with morphological characterization being the principal method of tick identification. In addition, 18 TBPs, including zoonotic pathogens (e.g., Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever virus), were detected, with Babesia spp., Theileria spp., and Rickettsia spp. being the most commonly reported. Half of the pathogens documented were detected using molecular techniques, while the other half were detected by serology and microscopic techniques. Generally, ticks and TBPs in the region are under-studied, particularly, data relating to pet animals and equines is lacking. Further, the infection intensity and herd prevalence of ticks and TBPs is unclear because of insufficient data and poor approaches to quantitative analysis, making it difficult to propose management policies in the region. There is an urgent need, therefore, for more and better studies, particularly those that take a 'One Health' perspective, focusing on the prevalence and socio-economic impact of ticks and TBPs in animals as well as in humans, so that sustainable control strategies against them can be planned.

Distribution of ticks in the Western Palearctic: an updated systematic review (2015-2021)

BACKGROUND

The distributions of ticks and tick-borne pathogens are thought to have changed rapidly over the last two decades, with their ranges expanding into new regions. This expansion has been driven by a range of environmental and socio-economic factors, including climate change. Spatial modelling is being increasingly used to track the current and future distributions of ticks and tick-borne pathogens and to assess the associated disease risk. However, such analysis is dependent on high-resolution occurrence data for each species. To facilitate such analysis, in this review we have compiled georeferenced tick locations in the Western Palearctic, with a resolution accuracy under 10 km, that were reported between 2015 and 2021 METHODS: The PubMed and Web of Science databases were searched for peer-reviewed papers documenting the distribution of ticks that were published between 2015 and 2021, using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. The papers were then screened and excluded in accordance with the PRISMA flow chart. Coordinate-referenced tick locations along with information on identification and collection methods were extracted from each eligible publication. Spatial analysis was conducted using R software (version 4.1.2).

RESULTS

From the 1491 papers identified during the initial search, 124 met the inclusion criteria, and from these, 2267 coordinate-referenced tick records from 33 tick species were included in the final dataset. Over 30% of articles did not record the tick location adequately to meet inclusion criteria, only providing a location name or general location. Among the tick records, Ixodes ricinus had the highest representation (55%), followed by Dermacentor reticulatus (22.1%) and Ixodes frontalis (4.8%). The majority of ticks were collected from vegetation, with only 19.1% collected from hosts.

CONCLUSIONS

The data presented provides a collection of recent high-resolution, coordinate-referenced tick locations for use in spatial analyses, which in turn can be used in combination with previously collated datasets to analyse the changes in tick distribution and research in the Western Palearctic. In the future it is recommended that, where data privacy rules allow, high-resolution methods are routinely used by researchers to geolocate tick samples and ensure their work can be used to its full potential.

Sheep scab: comparison of spatial and temporal patterns determined by clinical diagnosis or ELISA

Background

Ovine psoroptic mange (sheep scab) is an infectious condition caused by an allergen-induced hypersensitivity response to the mite Psoroptes ovis. Infestation results in clinical disease, economic loss and welfare issues in many sheep-producing countries. The aim of this study was to compare the prevalence and spatial pattern of sheep scab on contiguous farms, using both self-reported clinical outbreak history (2012–2020) and serological testing with an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (2021/2022).

Methods

Farms included in the study were located in three regions of known high scab prevalence in North, Central and Southwest England. In total, 254 farms completed both a questionnaire, which provided the clinical scab history of the farm, and submitted results of serological testing with the ELISA.

Results

A scab outbreak was reported by 17.4% (± confidence interval [CI]: 4.6%; n = 48) of farms in 2020 based on clinical diagnosis; scab was diagnosed by the ELISA on 25.6% (± 5.5%; n = 65) of farms in 2021/2022. Comparison of self-reported clinical scab cases with the ELISA test results identified a group of farms (n = 52) that did not report scab in 2020, or in some cases did not report having scab over the previous 8 years (n = 20), but whose flocks were nevertheless seropositive in 2021/2022.

Conclusion

A small number of flocks, particularly those using common grazings in North England, where handling is infrequent, often comprising less susceptible sheep breeds, may have persistent scab infestations that are generally undetected by clinical inspection. The data highlight the advantages of serological testing to identify exposure to scab in flocks where clinical signs are less easily detected.

Graphical Abstract

Prevalence of Babesia spp. pathogens in the ticks Dermacentor reticulatus and Ixodes ricinus in the UK

The emergence of Babesia pathogens novel to the UK is of growing concern; these include Babesia canis and Babesia caballi. However, a better understanding of changes in the prevalence of endemic Babesia species such as Babesia venatorum and Babesia divergens is also of importance. Here, the prevalence of Babesia pathogens in both Dermacentor reticulatus and Ixodes ricinus ticks was assessed. Dermacentor reticulatus were collected from six sites known to harbour populations of this species in west Wales and southern England. DNA was extracted from 879 individual ticks and subjected to PCR and sequence analysis. Seven Babesia species were detected in 7.5% of the ticks, including B. caballi (0.68%), B. bovis (1.7%), B. microti (1.02%), B. bigemina (0.34%), B. capreoli (0.34%), and one isolate of B. canis (0.34%). Two of the field sites with grazing equines present had ticks that were positive for B. caballi. For I. ricinus, up to 200 nymphs were collected from each of 24 cattle farms in south-west England. Nymphs were divided into 6 pools of 30 from each farm for DNA extraction, PCR, and sequencing. Samples from seven out of the 24 farms tested positive for Babesia, and most were positive for more than one species. Babesia divergens was identified from five farms, and three of these farms had two pooled samples positive for B. divergens, which given the low overall prevalence rate suggests that B. divergens may be highly clustered within the tick population. Most of the remaining positive samples were Babesia venatorum, demonstrating that this zoonotic pathogen is widespread in livestock habitats. The data suggest that B. canis is not yet widely prevalent in established D. reticulatus populations in the UK, but that there is a need to raise awareness of the risk of equine piroplasmosis in areas with endemic D. reticulatus foci, since B. caballi appears more widely established.

Dung beetle community assemblages in a southern African landscape: niche overlap between domestic and wild herbivore dung

Dung beetles provide important ecosystem functions in semiarid environments, improving the physiochemical characteristics of the soil through tunnelling and burying nutrient-rich dung. In sub-Saharan Africa, diverse indigenous mammal communities support highly abundant dung beetle populations in savannah ecosystems. However, the conversion of landscapes to livestock agriculture may result in changes in the abundance and diversity of wild mammal species. This is likely to have significant impacts on dung beetle communities, particularly because domestic livestock dung may be contaminated with toxic residues of veterinary parasiticides. The environmental impact is likely to be affected by the degree of niche overlap between the beetle communities that colonize cattle dung and those that colonize the dung of wild mammals. We compared dung beetle communities between a pristine national park habitat dominated by large wild herbivores, and a pastoral farming community dominated by domestic livestock. Diurnal dung beetles were attracted to cattle dung in greater abundance and diversity compared to elephant, zebra or giraffe dung. Nocturnal/crepuscular dung beetles were attracted to non-ruminant dung (elephant and zebra) in higher abundance compared to ruminant dung (cattle and giraffe). Although there were no clear trophic specializations, three diurnal species showed an association with cattle dung, whereas eight nocturnal/crepuscular species showed an association with non-ruminant (elephant and zebra) dung. Diurnal species may be at greater risk from the toxic effects of residues of veterinary parasiticides in domestic livestock dung. Although many species showed trophic associations with wild herbivore dung, these beetles can utilize a wide range of dung and will readily colonize cattle dung in the absence of other options. As more land is converted to livestock agriculture, the contamination of dung with toxic residues from veterinary parasiticides could therefore negatively impact the majority of dung beetle species.

Climate and the seasonal abundance of the tick Dermacentor reticulatus

Dermacentor reticulatus (Ixodida: Ixodidae, Fabricius 1794) is one of the most widely distributed and abundant tick species in central Europe and is a vector for a range of pathogens. Nevertheless, many aspects of its ecology and distribution remain poorly understood. To quantify the seasonal abundance of this species in the U.K. and the environmental factors that determine this, weekly sampling at sites throughout Wales and southern England was undertaken for 12 months. This showed that the activity of adult D. reticulatus peaked February and March and that no individuals were collected between May and mid-October; no questing tick activity was observed when the 5-day average temperature was greater than 15 °C. A single nymph was collected by dragging, confirming speculation over the nidicolous status of larval and nymphal stadia. Laboratory analysis found that D. reticulatus were able survive cold shock and the lower lethal temperature was estimated to be between -18 and -20 °C. Habitat was significantly associated with tick activity, with higher numbers of ticks collected from low lying vegetation in marsh environments than from exposed grassland or woodland. A strong association was observed between activity and saturation deficit suggesting that the seasonal pattern of activity seen in the field, within the sites where it was abundant, is more strongly determined by temperature than humidity. Range expansion within the U.K. should be expected, bringing with it an elevated disease risk for animal and human hosts.

Sheep scab spatial distribution: the roles of transmission pathways

BACKGROUND

Ovine psoroptic mange (sheep scab) is a highly pathogenic contagious infection caused by the mite Psoroptes ovis. Following 21 years in which scab was eradicated in the UK, it was inadvertently reintroduced in 1972 and, despite the implementation of a range of control methods, its prevalence increased steadily thereafter. Recent reports of resistance to macrocyclic lactone treatments may further exacerbate control problems. A better understanding of the factors that facilitate its transmission are required to allow improved management of this disease. Transmission of infection occurs within and between contiguous sheep farms via infected sheep-to-sheep or sheep-environment contact and through long-distance movements of infected sheep, such as through markets.

METHODS

A stochastic metapopulation model was used to investigate the impact of different transmission routes on the spatial pattern of outbreaks. A range of model scenarios were considered following the initial infection of a cluster of highly connected contiguous farms.

RESULTS

Scab spreads between clusters of neighbouring contiguous farms after introduction but when long-distance movements are excluded, infection then self-limits spatially at boundaries where farm connectivity is low. Inclusion of long-distance movements is required to generate the national patterns of disease spread observed.

CONCLUSIONS

Preventing the movement of scab infested sheep through sales and markets is essential for any national management programme. If effective movement control can be implemented, regional control in geographic areas where farm densities are high would allow more focussed cost-effective scab management.

Prevalence and distribution of lice on sheep and cattle farms in Great Britain

Lice are common production-limiting ectoparasites affecting livestock. Up-to-date data on their prevalence and spatial distribution on farms in Great Britain is important given that prevalence is believed to be increasing as a result of insecticide resistance. Here the prevalence of farms reporting lice, and factors associated with louse presence, were assessed using a retrospective questionnaire. For sheep and cattle farms, 16.1 % and 15.8 % reported lice on their livestock, respectively. Beef farms were more likely to report lice than dairy farms, with a prevalence of 18.0 % and 7.8 %, respectively. For sheep farms, prevalence was highest in Wales (27.7 %) and Scotland (22.4 %). For cattle farms, prevalence was highest in Scotland (27.6 %), Wales (18.5 %) and SW England (18.5 %). For sheep farms, statistical hotspot clusters were identified in Wales, NW England and SW Scotland, with prevalence in these areas ranging from 30.7 to 40.0%. For cattle farms clustering of cases was less evident. Multivariable analysis showed that significant factors associated with lice on sheep farms were larger flock sizes and geographic location (Scotland or Wales). For beef cattle farms, significant associated factors were larger herd sizes and upland grazing. More than 90 % of farms that reported lice, also reported treating for lice.

Sheep scab transmission: a spatially explicit dynamic metapopulation model

Psoroptic mange (sheep scab), caused by the parasitic mite, Psoroptes ovis, is an important disease of sheep worldwide. It causes chronic animal welfare issues and economic losses. Eradication of scab has proved impossible in many sheep-rearing areas and recent reports of resistance to macrocyclic lactones, a key class of parasiticide, highlight the importance of improving approaches to scab management. To allow this, the current study aimed to develop a stochastic spatial metapopulation model for sheep scab transmission which can be adapted for use in any geographical region, exhibited here using data for Great Britain. The model uses agricultural survey and sheep movement data to geo-reference farms and capture realistic movement patterns. Reported data on sheep scab outbreaks from 1973 to 1991 were used for model fitting with Sequential Monte Carlo Approximate Bayesian Computation methods. The outbreak incidence predicted by the model was from the same statistical distribution as the reported outbreak data (\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$${\chi }^{2}$$\end{document}χ2 = 115.3, p = 1) and the spatial location of sheep scab outbreaks predicted was positively correlated with the observed outbreak data by county (\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$\tau$$\end{document}τ = 0.55, p < 0.001), confirming that the model developed is able to accurately capture the number of farms infected in a year, the seasonality of scab incidence and the spatial patterns seen in the data. This model gives insight into the transmission dynamics of sheep scab and will allow the exploration of more effective control strategies.

Prevalence and distribution of Anaplasma phagocytophilum in ticks collected from dogs in the United Kingdom

BACKGROUND

Anaplasma phagocytophilum is the etiological agent of canine granulocytic anaplasmosis in dogs and causes human granulocytic anaplasmosis (HGA). Tick-borne anaplasmosis has been recognised as an emerging zoonotic health concern worldwide. The aim of the present study was to determine the prevalence of A. phagocytophilum in ticks collected from dogs in the UK and map its distribution. Routine surveillance of tick-borne disease is essential as part of a "One Health" approach to infectious disease management.

METHODS

Tick DNA samples collected in 2015 as part of a large-scale tick surveillance programme were analysed using a previously validated diagnostic quantitative PCR for A. phagocytophilum.

RESULTS

PCR analysis indicated that 138 out of 2994 tick DNA samples analysed were positive for A. phagocytophilum, a prevalence of 4.6% (95% CI: 3.89-5.42). Among these 138 tick DNA samples, 131 were from Ixodes ricinus, six were from Ixodes hexagonus and one was from Ixodes canisuga. Three of the I. ricinus tick DNA samples positive for A. phagocytophilum DNA were also positive for Borrelia spp. DNA and one was positive for Babesia spp. DNA, indicating co-infection. The ticks positive for the pathogen DNA were found widely distributed throughout the UK.

CONCLUSIONS

These data provide important information on the prevalence and wide distribution of A. phagocytophilum in ticks infesting dogs within the UK.

Process Factors Affecting Reperfusion Time in Patients With ST-Segment Elevation Myocardial Infarction

OBJECTIVE

To determine process factors impacting myocardial infarction reperfusion time.

BACKGROUND

An ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) is a life-threatening condition that necessitates emergent medical treatment; longer reperfusion times are associated with negative patient outcomes. Therefore, time is critical in the treatment of a STEMI.

METHODS

Admissions data from Las Vegas hospitals were analyzed via multivariate regression analysis to determine predictors of reperfusion times. The analysis was based on 618 patients presenting with a diagnosis of STEMI at participating facilities from 1 January 2015 to 31 December 2017. The dependent variable was door to balloon time; independent variables included the mode of arrival, regular vs off hours, pre-hospital electrocardiogram (ECG), the use of pre-hospital activation of the STEMI protocol, door to triage time, door to ECG time, door to first physician contact time, cardiologist arrival time, cardiac catheterization lab team arrival time, lifesaving measures prior to percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI), critical diagnostic exams prior to PCI, and anatomical variances causing PCI delay.

RESULTS

Prehospital STEMI activation, cardiologist arrival time, lifesaving measures, door to ECG time, time/day, critical diagnostics exams, and door to first MD time all had a statistically significant impact on door-to-balloon time (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Timely identification of STEMI patients via ECG and activation of the STEMI protocol is paramount to shorten time to heart vessel reperfusion. However, this study indicates that some process factors indicated previously to impact reperfusion times did not have significantly effects in this study sample.

Metabolic rate and resource depletion in the tick Ixodes ricinus in response to temperature

Understanding the effects of temperature on the metabolic activity and the rate of depletion of energy reserves by Ixodes ricinus can represent an important contribution to explaining patterns of tick activity and the likely impacts of environmental change on tick and tick-borne disease risk. Here, a cohort of I. ricinus nymphs, males, and females was collected and placed into incubators at temperatures of between 5 and 30 °C. The protein, carbohydrate, total lipid, neutral lipid, and glycogen levels were measured for nymphs for up to 70 days and adults up to 42 days. In nymphs, at day 0, glycogen was the most abundant metabolite followed by carbohydrate, with relatively low concentrations of protein and lipids. For males, the concentrations of different metabolites were relatively similar. In contrast, for females, concentrations of glycogen and carbohydrate were relatively low compared to those of protein and neutral lipids. Significant exponential declines in metabolite concentrations of all metabolites were detected over time for all life-cycle stages and at all temperatures. Nymphs generally showed lower rates of resource depletion than adults at all temperatures. The lower thresholds for metabolic activity were estimated to be between -10 and -5 °C. The Q₁₀ values, which describe the thermal sensitivity of metabolic rate, were estimated to be relatively low (1.5 for nymphs, 1.71 for males, and 1.63 for females) compared to insects where they are typically around 2.5 (range: 1.5-3), and this is considered to be an adaptation to increase survival during the extended inter-feed intervals.

Fleas infesting cats and dogs in Great Britain: spatial distribution of infestation risk and its relation to treatment

The spatial pattern of flea (Siphonaptera: Pulicidae) infestation risk in cats and dogs across Great Britain is quantified, using data collected from a national survey undertaken in 2018, with particular attention given to the association between insecticidal treatment and infestation risk. Flea infestation risk declined significantly from south to north. None of the factors: pet breed, sex, neutered status or whether the pet had been abroad, showed any relationship with the underlying geographic distribution, which is most likely to be associated with climatic factors. However, overall, only 23.6% of the cats and 35% of the dogs inspected had been treated with identifiable flea products that were still 'in date' at the point of inspection. The percentage of owners treating their pet broadly followed infestation risk. The insecticide fipronil is a common active in a wide range of flea treatments and was the most frequently applied insecticide class, particularly in cats. However, 62% of cats and 45% of dogs that had been treated with a fipronil-based product that was 'in date' at the point of inspection still had fleas. Persistent flea infestation is likely to be due to a range of factors, including compliance and application failure, but the data provide strong inferential evidence for a lack of efficacy of fipronil-based products. Given the ubiquity of flea infestation, this finding and the relatively low-level of treatment compliance, highlight a clear need for greater owner education about the importance of flea management and a better understanding of the efficacy of different products.

Distribution and prevalence of ticks and tick-borne disease on sheep and cattle farms in Great Britain

INTRODUCTION

The most abundant and widespread tick species in Great Britain, Ixodes ricinus, is responsible for the transmission of a range of pathogens that cause disease in livestock. Empirical data on tick distribution and prevalence are required to inform farm management strategies. However, such data are largely unavailable; previous surveys have been rare and are usually relatively localised.

METHODS

A retrospective questionnaire survey of farmers was used to assess the reported prevalence of ticks on livestock across Great Britain. Spatial scan statistics and kernel density maps were used to assess spatial clustering and identify areas of significantly elevated risk, independent of the underlying distribution of respondents. Logistic regression models were used to identify risk factors for tick presence.

RESULTS

Tick infection risk to livestock is shown to be spatially aggregated, with areas of significantly elevated risk in north Wales, northwest England and western Scotland. Overall, the prevalence of farms reporting tick presence was 13% for sheep farms and 6% for cattle farms, but in "hot spot" clusters prevalence ranged between 48-100%. The prevalence of farms reporting tick-borne disease overall was 6% for sheep and 2% for cattle, but on farms reporting ticks, prevalence was 44% and 33% for sheep and cattle farms, respectively. Upland farming, larger flock sizes, region and the presence of sheep on cattle farms were all significant risk factors for tick presence.

CONCLUSIONS

These data have important implications for assessing both the risk of tick-borne disease in livestock and optimising approaches to disease management. In particular, the study highlights the need for effective livestock tick control in upland regions and the southwest, and provides evidence for the importance of sheep as tick maintenance hosts.

Detection of SARS-CoV-2 by bronchoscopy after negative nasopharyngeal testing: Stay vigilant for COVID-19

PURPOSE

Real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) detection of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) is required for diagnosis of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Sensitivity of RT-PCR nasopharyngeal (NP) testing is presumed to be high, but there is no gold standard against which this has been determined. The objective was to determine whether lower respiratory tract infection (LRTI), detected in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), occurs in the absence of upper respiratory tract infection with clinical testing of both specimen types.

METHODS

Between March 26, 2020 and April 17, 2020 at the University of Washington Medical Center all patients with BALF specimens clinically tested for SARS-CoV-2 were identified. We assessed the proportion of patients with positive RT-PCR for SARS-CoV-2 in BALF after negative NP testing. We describe 3 cases with positive testing in BALF.

RESULTS

Among 16 patients with BALF samples, 3 cases (19%) had SARS-CoV-2 detected in BALF. In Case 1, negative NP testing occurred early in the infection and respiratory symptoms may have been missed due to neurologic injury. In Case 2, outpatient diagnosis was aspiration pneumonia, but clinical suspicion remained high for COVID-19 at hospitalization based on epidemiological and clinical features. All 3 cases involved older adults (age >65 years), one of whom was immunosuppressed in the setting of lung transplantation (Case 3).

CONCLUSIONS

These data demonstrate that SARS-CoV-2 LRTI occurs in the presence of negative NP testing. NP testing may underestimate the prevalence of COVID-19 and has implications for spread of SARS-CoV2 in the community and healthcare setting.

Nutritional requirements for reproduction and survival in the blowfly Lucilia sericata

Insects with access to finite energy resources must allocate these between maintenance and reproduction in a way that maximizes fitness. This will be influenced by a range of life-history characteristics and the environment in which any particular insect species lives. In the present study, females of the blowfly Lucilia sericata (Diptera: Calliphoridae) were fed diets differing in protein and carbohydrate (sucrose) content and the allocation of lipid to reproduction was quantified using a spectrophotometric method of analysis. Immediately after adult emergence, total body lipid, scaled for differences in body size, showed an initial decline as it was utilized to meet the metabolic demands of cuticle deposition, muscle maturation and then flight. When flies were denied access to sucrose, stored lipid then continued to decrease until flies died, usually within 4 days of emergence. However, flies given access to sucrose were able to increase body lipid content, demonstrating that carbohydrate is essential for homeostasis and that it can be used to synthesize lipid. Nevertheless, female flies fed sucrose only were unable to synthesize egg yolk. Only flies provided with protein were able to mature eggs. However, the rate of egg maturation and number and size of eggs matured were greater for female flies given liver compared with flies provided with pure whey protein powder. The results demonstrate the importance of different dietary components for different elements of the life-history of L. sericata, namely survival and reproduction.

The prevalence of Rickettsia felis DNA in fleas collected from cats and dogs in the UK

In a large-scale survey in the UK, recruited veterinary practices were asked to inspect client-ownedcats and dogs, selected at random between April and June 2018, following a standardised flea inspection protocol. A total of 326 veterinary practices participated and 812 cats and 662 dogs were examined during the 3-month period. Fleas were collected, identified to species level and fleas of the same species collected from a single animal were pooled together and treated as a single sample. A total of 470 pooled flea samples were screened by PCR and DNA sequence analysis for a subset of Rickettsia species including R. felis and R. typhi. On analysis, 27 (5.7%) of the pooled flea samples were positive for R. felis DNA; these were predominantly in the cat flea, Ctenocephalides felis, but one dog flea, Ctenocephalides canis was also positive for this pathogen.

Reproductive sublethal effects of macrocyclic lactones and synthetic pyrethroids on the dung beetle Onthophagus similis

Dung-colonizing beetles provide a range of ecosystem services in farmland pasture systems. However, such beetles are declining in Northern temperate regions. This may, in part, be due to the widespread use of macrocyclic lactones (MLs) and synthetic pyrethroids (SPs) in livestock farming. These chemicals are used to control pests and parasites of cattle; the residues of which are excreted in dung at concentrations toxic to insects. While the lethal effects of such residues are well known, sublethal effects are less understood. Any effects, however, may have important consequences for beetle populations, particularly if they affect reproduction. To investigate, the impact of ML and SP exposure on the reproductive output of Onthophagus similis (Scriba), a Northern temperate dung beetle species, was examined. In laboratory trials, field-collected adult O. similis exposed to the ML ivermectin at 1 ppm (wet weight) over a period of 3 weeks had smaller oocytes (p = 0.016), smaller fat bodies and reduced motility compared to the control. In a farm-level investigation, cattle dung-baited pitfall trapping was undertaken on 23 beef cattle farms in SW England, which either used MLs (n = 9), SPs (n = 7) or neither chemical (n = 7). On farms that used no MLs or SPs, 24.2% of females caught were gravid. However, on farms that used MLs no gravid females were caught, and only 1% of the beetles caught on farms using SPs were gravid (p < 0.001). The association between ML and SP use and impaired reproductive output suggests that the use of such chemicals is likely to be ecologically damaging.

Determining the total energy budget of the tick Ixodes ricinus

Precise and accessible techniques for measuring metabolic responses to environmental stress are essential to allow the likely impacts of climate and climate change on tick distribution, abundance and phenology to be predicted. A more detailed understanding of the metabolic profile of ticks may also help the complex responses to pathogen infection and effects on transmission to be evaluated. Here, a series of biochemical protocols employing spectrophotometric methods are used to determine the entire energy budget of ticks. Protein, carbohydrate, total lipid, neutral lipid and glycogen were measured in individual Ixodes ricinus nymphs and adults. Two key trends were identified: in adults, protein was relatively more abundant than in nymphs, whereas in nymphs, glycogen and carbohydrate were more abundant than in adults, with glycogen alone composing 39% of the mass of metabolites in nymphs compared to 15 and 10% in females and males, respectively. The methods used were able to successfully separate neutral lipids from the polar phospholipids and the importance of distinguishing stored from structural lipid in estimates of lipid reserves is emphasised. The results demonstrate that the spectrophotometric approaches deliver relatively rapid and reliable estimates of the total energetic budget and can be used to quantify the metabolic profiles of individual ticks, demonstrating their suitability for use in ecological and epidemiological studies.

Sustainable goat production: modelling optimal performance in extensive systems

Context Strategies for achieving greater ruminant livestock productivity are essential to meet the food demands of growing populations, but sustainable changes are difficult to identify given the inherent complexity of such systems. Systems models can address this issue by allowing the impact of potential changes to be explored. Aims To develop a holistic systems model for goat production in an extensive Mediterranean environment which could allow changes in key management factors influencing the system to be investigated. Methods Initially, a conceptual comprehensive stock-and-flow model of a representative Mediterranean goat production system was constructed. This was used to identify informative indicators that would represent the overall technical and economic performance of the system. Sub-models were then assembled to build the full systems model. The model was parameterised with data collected over 3 years for goat holdings in northern Morocco. Scenario analysis techniques are used to explore the strategies that optimise performance under climate and feed price challenges. Key results Meat production is particularly important during periods of drought when increased meat yields can counteract the expected reduction in milk yields, to protect human food security, prevent excessive rangeland degradation and preserve natural nutritional resources. Feed price shocks during drought can have significant negative impacts on the system and zero feed input is shown to be a more sustainable strategy than reliance on high price feed during drought. Any alternative feed sources need to have a high forage component to reduce grazing periods significantly and promote rangeland preservation. Implications A diverse management strategy with a mixed meat and dairy semi-intensive production is more stable than specialised dairy systems and allows goat production and financial viability of intensification to be maintained under climatic stress; maintaining meat production was necessary to optimise performance. Conclusions The model allows improved insight into management strategies which could optimise animal husbandry performance in goat subsistence systems. However, the work also demonstrates the difficulty of constructing a truly holistic model since, to be practical, such constructs must necessarily be bounded; parameter selection and the limits to the boundaries imposed are inevitably critical.

Seasonal abundance of the stable fly Stomoxys calcitrans in southwest England

The stable fly Stomoxys calcitrans (L.) is a cosmopolitan biting fly of both economic and welfare concern, primarily as a result of its painful bite, which can cause blood loss, discomfort and loss of productivity in livestock. Between June and November in 2016 and May and December in 2017, Alsynite sticky-traps were deployed at four Donkey Sanctuary sites in southwest England, which experience recurrent seasonal biting fly problems. The aim was to evaluate the seasonal dynamics of the stable fly populations and the risk factors associated with abundance. In total, 19 835 S. calcitrans were trapped during the study period. In both years, abundance increased gradually over summer months, peaking in late August/September. There were no relationships between seasonally detrended abundance and any climatic factors. Fly abundance was significantly different between sites and population size was consistent between years at three of the four sites. The median chronological age, as determined by pteridine analysis of flies caught live when blood-feeding, was 4.67 days (interquartile range 3.8-6.2 days) in males and 6.79 days (interquartile range 4.8-10.4 days) in females; there was no significant, consistent change in age or age structure over time, suggesting that adult flies emerge continuously over the summer, rather than in discrete age-related cohorts. The data suggest that flies are more abundant in the vicinity of active animal facilities, although the strong behavioural association between flies and their hosts means that they are less likely to be caught on traps where host availability is high. The implications of these results for fly management are discussed.

Essential oils as tick repellents on clothing

Essential oils show promise as natural alternatives to synthetic tick repellents, but few studies have investigated their repellent efficacy in vivo or under field conditions. Here, blanket-drags and standardised walks were employed to evaluate tick acquisition by 1 m² cotton blankets or cotton trousers, respectively, in woodland edge habitats of known high tick abundance. Blankets and trousers had been treated with one of 5% oregano, rosemary, spearmint or thyme oils, 20% DEET (N,N-diethyl-3-methylbenzamide) (positive control) or ethanol excipient-only (negative control). The number of ticks present on the blankets or trousers differed significantly between treatments: spearmint oil treatments resulted in significantly fewer ticks than the negative controls for both blankets and trousers and significantly fewer ticks were present on the oregano oil treated blankets. For ticks that did attach to the trousers, the rate of drop off within 3 min was significantly higher for trousers treated with spearmint oil or thyme oil than ethanol, oregano oil and rosemary oil. No reduction in repellence was detected over a 24 h period between treatment and testing. The results suggest that 5% oregano and spearmint oils exhibit potential as natural clothing repellents, with an effective equivalence to 20% DEET.

Ecological and geographical speciation in Lucilia bufonivora: The evolution of amphibian obligate parasitism

Lucilia (Diptera: Calliphoridae) is a genus of blowflies comprised largely of saprophagous and facultative parasites of livestock. Lucilia bufonivora, however, exhibits a unique form of obligate parasitism of amphibians, typically affecting wild hosts. The evolutionary route by which amphibian myiasis arose, however, is not well understood due to the low phylogenetic resolution in existing nuclear DNA phylogenies. Furthermore, the timing of when specificity for amphibian hosts arose in L. bufonivora is also unknown. In addition, this species was recently reported for the first time in North America (Canada) and, to date, no molecular studies have analysed the evolutionary relationships between individuals from Eastern and Western hemispheres. To provide broader insights into the evolution of the amphibian parasitic life history trait and to estimate when the trait first arose, a time-scaled phylogeny was inferred from a concatenated data set comprising mtDNA, nDNA and non-coding rDNA (COX1, per and ITS2 respectively). Specimens from Canada, the UK, Poland, Switzerland, the Netherlands and Germany were analysed, as well as individuals from its sister taxa, the saprophage Lucilia silvarum and a Nearctic species also implicated in amphibian myiasis, Lucilia elongata. Obligate amphibian parasitism appears to have arisen ~4 mya, likely as a result of niche displacement of a saprophagous/facultative parasite ancestor. Consistent paraphyly of L. bufonivora with respect to L. elongata across single-gene phylogenies and high mtDNA genetic distances between Nearctic and Palearctic individuals suggest on-going cryptic speciation facilitated by geographical isolation. These findings suggest that recent reports of L. bufonivora in the Nearctic do not constitute a recent introduction, but instead suggest that it remained unrecorded due to taxonomic confusion and low abundance. This is the first study to confirm the involvement of L. bufonivora in amphibian myiasis in Canada using DNA-based identification methods.

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Within Lucilia, a small genus of blowflies mostly comprised of carrion-breeding species, obligate parasitism for amphibians evolved around 4 mya.

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Geographic isolation between Nearctic and Palearctic lineages is facilitating on-going cryptic speciation of Lucilia bufonivora.

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First positive identification of L. bufonivora from two confirmed cases of amphibian myiasis in North America.

Multiple resistance to macrocyclic lactones in the sheep scab mite Psoroptes ovis

The astigmatid mite Psoroptes ovis (Acari: Proroptidae) causes the highly contagious and debilitating ovine disease, sheep scab. This ectoparasitic infection has a high economic and animal welfare impact on British sheep farming. Following recent work demonstrating resistance of Psoroptes mites to moxidectin, a widely used macrocyclic lactone (ML) treatment for scab, the current study compared the toxicity of three of the commonly administered macrocylic lactone therapeutic treatments (moxidectin, ivermectin and doramectin) to P. ovis from outbreak populations that had appeared unresponsive to treatment. These outbreak populations were from Wales and south west England. The data presented demonstrate that there is resistance to all three available ML compounds in populations of Psoroptes mites. However, considerable variation in response suggested that resistance alone was not responsible for the reported lack of efficacy in all of the submitted cases; lack of response in others may be associated with inappropriate treatment application or management. These data highlight the importance of the appropriate use of these compounds to manage national scab incidence at levels that are consistent with acceptable animal welfare standards, while attempting to reduce the development and spread of resistance.

Pet travel disease risks

An ever-increasing number of pets, particularly dogs, are travelling from and back to the UK with their owners, in addition to new pets being brought in having been acquired outside the UK (often as ‘rescues’), and puppies bred outside the UK and imported legally or illegally. Such pet travel risks the importation of a variety of diseases that generally have not been present in the UK. Veterinary surgeons need to be aware of the risks associated with pet travel, and have a good understanding of these diseases. ESCCAP is an excellent source of information on parasites. To protect animal health, it is necessary to go well beyond the Pet Travel Scheme requirements. It is important to be able to provide owners with the best advice and preventative treatments to minimise the risks of pets acquiring parasitic, vector-borne and other diseases while travelling — for their benefit and for the longer-term health and welfare of the UK pet population, as well as the health of the human population. For any disease prevention or control programme to be effective, awareness and motivation must be raised, and for this, communication is key. It is vital to tailor the language used to match the audience in order for any message to be heard and accepted, and it is essential to remember the emotional attachment that people develop for animals they are ‘rescuing’.

Spatial and temporal habitat partitioning by calliphorid blowflies

Calliphorid blowflies perform an essential ecosystem service in the consumption, recycling and dispersion of carrion nutrients and are considered amongst the most important functional groups in an ecosystem. Some species are of economic importance as facultative agents of livestock myiasis. The interspecific ecological differences that facilitate coexistence within the blowfly community are not fully understood. The aim of this work was to quantify differences in habitat use by calliphorid species. Thirty traps were distributed among three habitats at two sites in southwest England for collections made during March-August 2016. A total of 17 246 specimens were caught, of which 2427 were Lucilia sericata, 51 Lucilia richardsi, 6580 Lucilia caesar, 307 Lucilia ampullacea, 4881 Calliphora vicina and 2959 Calliphora vomitoria (all: Diptera: Calliphoridae). Lucilia sericata was the dominant species in open habitats, whereas L. caesar was the most abundant species in shaded habitats. Calliphora specimens were more abundant in the cooler months. These findings suggest that Calliphora and Lucilia species show strong temporal segregation mediated by temperature, and that species of the genus Lucilia show differences in the use of habitats that are likely to be driven by differences in humidity tolerance and light intensity. These factors in combination result in effective niche partitioning.

Pathogens in fleas collected from cats and dogs: distribution and prevalence in the UK

Background

Fleas (Siphonaptera) are the most clinically important ectoparasites of dogs and cats worldwide. Rising levels of pet ownership, climate change and globalisation are increasing the importance of a detailed understanding of the endemicity and prevalence of flea-borne pathogens. This requires continued surveillance to detect change. This study reports a large-scale survey of pathogens in fleas collected from client-owned cats and dogs in the UK.

Methods

Recruited veterinary practices were asked to follow a standardised flea inspection protocol on a randomised selection of cats and dogs brought into the practice in April and June 2018. A total of 326 practices participated and 812 cats and 662 dogs were examined. Fleas were collected, identified to species and pooled flea samples from each host were analysed for the presence of pathogens using PCR and sequence analysis.

Results

Overall, 28.1% of cats and 14.4% of dogs were flea infested. More than 90% of the fleas on both cats and dogs were cat fleas, Ctenocephalides felis felis. Fleas of the same species from each infested host were pooled. DNA was amplified from 470 of the pooled flea samples using conventional PCR, 66 of which (14% ± 95% CI 3.14%) were positive for at least one pathogen. Fifty-three (11.3% ± 95% CI 2.85%) of the pooled flea DNA samples were positive for Bartonella spp., 35 were from cats and 4 from dogs, the remainder had no host record. Seventeen of the Bartonella spp. samples were found to be Bartonella henselae, 27 were Bartonella clarridgeiae (of two different strains), 4 samples were Bartonella alsatica and one was Bartonella grahamii; 4 samples could not be identified. Fourteen (3% ± 95% CI 1.53%) of the flea DNA samples were found to be positive for Dipylidium caninum, 10 of the D. caninum-infected samples were collected from cats and one from a dog, the other 3 positive flea samples had no host species record. Only 3 flea samples were positive for Mycoplasma haemofelis or Mycoplasma haemocanis; 2 were collected from cats and one had no host species record. Three fleas were positive for both D. caninum and Bartonella spp. One flea was positive for both Bartonella spp. and M. haemofelis or M. haemocanis.

Conclusions

This study highlights the need for ongoing flea control, particularly given the relatively high prevalence of Bartonella spp., which is of concern for both animal welfare and human health. The study demonstrates the ongoing need to educate pet owners about the effects of both flea infestation and also the pathogen risks these fleas present.

Spectrophotometric analysis of lipid used to examine the phenology of the tick Ixodes ricinus

BACKGROUND

Ticks store lipid as an energy souce, which depletes progressively between blood meals. The amount of lipid and rate of lipid depletion can be used as a good indicator of the feeding history and assist in explaining the phenology of tick populations. However, existing gravimetric approaches to lipid measurement are relatively imprecise. To improve our ability to accurately measure lipid accumulation and metabolism in individual ticks, a microquantity colorimetric sulfophosphovanillan method of lipid estimation was standardised and used to explore the seasonal variations in the lipid content of I. ricinus nymphs.

RESULTS

Lipid values for field-derived questing ticks, collected by blanket dragging, varied between 5-45 μg and clear patterns of lipid depletion were demonstrated under controlled laboratory conditions. For field populations collected monthly over two years, the results indicate that two different cohorts of nymphs enter the questing tick population in autumn and spring, with very few nymphs joining the population in summer.

CONCLUSIONS

The data illustrate the seasonal change in lipid content of nymphal ticks, reflecting their feeding history and highlight the utility of the spectrophotometric technique for analysis of lipid in ticks in helping to improve our understanding of seasonal activity patterns.

Antinociception by intrathecal delivery of the novel non-opioid 1-amino-1-cyclobutanecarboxylic acid

BACKGROUND

Neuraxial opioids are widely used for intraoperative and post-operative analgesia. The risk of severe adverse effects including respiratory depression accompanies this analgesia, prompting the need for effective non-opioid alternatives. Systemic 1-amino-1-cyclobutanecarboxylic acid showed promise in preliminary studies to produce antinociception without observable toxicity. However, the effects of 1-amino-1-cyclobutanecarboxylic acid after intrathecal administration are unknown. The aim of this study was to determine whether intrathecal administration of 1-amino-1-cyclobutanecarboxylic acid produces antinociceptive effects in murine models and to elucidate its site and receptor mechanism of action.

METHODS

Female CD-1 mice were randomized to receive intrathecal, intraperitoneal and intraplantar injections of 1-amino-1-cyclobutanecarboxylic acid. Animals receiving intrathecal injections were anaesthetized and injected between L5 and L6. Animals then received an intraplantar injection of 10% hypertonic saline into the right hindpaw and were video-recorded for 30 min. Videos were analyzed by a blinded observer who determined the duration that animals exhibited nocifensive responses.

RESULTS

Intrathecal or intraperitoneal administration of 1-amino-1-cyclobutanecarboxylic acid reduced the time that animals exhibited nocifensive behaviour, whereas intraplantar administration produced no effect. The effects of intrathecal 1-amino-1-cyclobutanecarboxylic acid were restricted in dermatomal distribution, reversible and produced little or no depression of respiratory rate. An NMDA antagonist blocked antinociception, while mu-opioid or GABA_B antagonists did not prevent ACBC antinociception.

CONCLUSIONS

Intrathecal 1-amino-1-cyclobutanecarboxylic acid in mice produces robust, brief antinociceptive effects with a dermatomal distribution corresponding to the lumbar site of administration. This amino acid merits further exploration as a non-opioid neuraxial analgesic with little or no respiratory side effects.

SIGNIFICANCE

The novel, non-opioid analgesic, 1-amino-1-cyclobutanecarboxylic acid, produced robust, reversible and localized antinociception in murine models of pain. This study provides evidence supporting further investigation and development of 1-amino-1-cyclobutanecarboxylic acid as a non-opioid spinal analgesic.

Climate variability differentially impacts thermal fitness traits in three coprophagic beetle species

While the impacts of extreme and rising mean temperatures are well documented, increased thermal variability associated with climate change may also threaten ectotherm fitness and survival, but remains poorly explored. Using three wild collected coprophagic species Copris elphenor, Metacatharsius opacus and Scarabaeus zambezianus, we explored the effects of thermal amplitude around the mean on thermal tolerance. Using standardized protocols, we measured traits of high- (critical thermal maxima [CT_max] and heat knockdown time [HKDT]) and -low temperature tolerance (critical thermal minima [CT_min], chill coma recovery time [CCRT] and supercooling points [SCPs]) following variable temperature pulses (δ0, δ3, δ6 and δ9°C) around the mean (27°C). Our results show that increased temperature variability may offset basal and plastic responses to temperature and differs across species and metrics tested. Furthermore, we also show differential effects of body mass, body water content (BWC) and body lipid content (BLC) on traits of thermal tolerance. For example, body mass significantly influenced C. elphenor and S. zambezianus CT_max and S. zambezianus HKDT but not CT_min and CCRT. BWC significantly affected M. opacus and C. elphenor CT_max and in only M. opacus HKDT, CT_min and CCRT. Similarly, BLC only had a significant effect for M opacus CT_min. These results suggest differential and species dependent effects of climate variability of thermal fitness traits. It is therefore likely that the ecological services provided by these species may be constrained in the face of climate change. This implies that, to develop more realistic predictions for the effects of climate change on insect biodiversity and ecosystem function, thermal variability is a significant determinant.

The prevalence and distribution of sheep scab in Wales: a farmer questionnaire survey

Outbreaks of ovine psoroptic mange in the U.K. have increased 100-fold since its deregulation in 1992, with the highest prevalence in Wales, a region of high sheep density. A cross-sectional, retrospective, questionnaire-based survey of 7500 members of the association of Welsh lamb and beef farmers [Welsh Lamb and Beef Producers Ltd (WLBP)] was used to investigate the prevalence and distribution of sheep scab in this region in 2015. The survey was completed by 14.0% (n = 972) of potential respondents. Scab outbreaks were reported on 15.8% (n = 154) of farms in 2015. However, 29.0% (n = 282) of farms reported at least one scab outbreak and 2.4% (n = 23) of farms had experienced between six and 10 outbreaks in the previous 10 years. Most outbreaks occurred during September-January (83.0%, n = 150), and were clustered around Brecon (mid-Wales) and Bangor (North Wales). Farmers who used common grazing were significantly more likely to report scab outbreaks in the previous 10 years than farmers who did not. No quarantine procedures for sheep bought in were used by 29.0% (n = 262) of farmers. Future research should be directed towards the development of localized management programmes, with a particular focus on areas of common grazing.

The case for mental health support at a primary care level

Purpose

Severe mental illness affects a significant number of people and, if left untreated, leads to poor quality of life and disability. Many of the aspirations proposed for new models of care assert that better preventative services, closer integration between professionals, and increased access to cognitive behavioural therapy in primary care will bring substantial benefits and improved outcomes. The purpose of this paper is to explore the benefits of integrating mental health services into primary care, and improving collaboration between secondary services and primary care. There is a transition underway in healthcare whereby a focus on illness is being supplemented with, or refocused towards achieving better patient well-being. New approaches to service provision are being proposed that: focuses on more holistic outcomes; integrates services around the user; and employs innovative system techniques to incentivise professional and organisational collaboration. Such a transition must be inclusive of those with mental health needs managed in primary care and for those people with serious mental illness in secondary care.

Design/methodology/approach

This paper discusses the issues of professional collaboration and the need to provide mental healthcare in a continuous and coordinated manner and; how this may improve timely access to treatment, early diagnosis and intervention. Importantly, it is essential to consider the limitations and reality of recent integration initiatives, and to consider where the true benefit of better integrating mental health into a more collaborative system may lie.

Findings

Identifying and addressing issues of parity is likely to call for a new approach to service provision that: focuses on outcomes; co-designs services integrated around the user; and employs innovative contracting techniques to incentivise provider integration.

Practical implications

There is a transition underway in healthcare whereby a focus on illness is being supplemented with or refocused towards working towards wellness. Such a transition requires primary care mental health services to be provided in a continuous and coordinated manner in order to meet the health needs of people with serious mental illness.

Originality/value

It discusses the issues of professional collaboration and how this may improve timely access to treatment, early diagnosis and intervention. It is essential to consider the limitations and reality of recent integration initiatives, and to consider where the true benefit may lie.

Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Bartonella spp., haemoplasma species and Hepatozoon spp. in ticks infesting cats: a large-scale survey

Background

Ticks derived from cats have rarely been evaluated for the presence of pathogens. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Bartonella spp., haemoplasma species and Hepatozoon spp. in ticks collected from cats in the UK.

Methods

Five hundred and forty DNA samples extracted from 540 ticks collected from cats presenting to veterinarians in UK practices were used. Samples underwent a conventional generic PCR assay for detection of Hepatozoon spp. and real-time quantitative PCR assays for detection of Anaplasma phagocytophilum and three feline haemoplasma species and a generic qPCR for detection of Bartonella spp. Feline 28S rDNA served as an endogenous internal PCR control and was assessed within the haemoplasma qPCR assays. Samples positive on the conventional and quantitative generic PCRs were submitted for DNA sequencing for species identification.

Results

Feline 28S rDNA was amplified from 475 of the 540 (88.0%) ticks. No evidence of PCR inhibition was found using an internal amplification control. Of 540 ticks, 19 (3.5%) contained DNA from one of the tick-borne pathogens evaluated. Pathogens detected were: A. phagocytophilum (n = 5; 0.9%), Bartonella spp. (n = 7; 1.3%) [including Bartonella henselae (n = 3; 0.6%) and Bartonella clarridgeiae (n = 1; 0.2%)], haemoplasma species (n = 5; 0.9%), “Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum” (n = 3; 0.6%), Mycoplasma haemofelis (n = 1; 0.2%), “Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis” (n = 1; 0.2%), Hepatozoon spp. (n = 2; 0.4%), Hepatozoon felis (n = 1; 0.2%) and Hepatozoon silvestris (n = 1; 0.2%).

Conclusion

These data provide important information on the prevalence of tick-borne pathogens in ticks infesting cats, with the identification of haemoplasma species, A. phagocytophilum, H. felis and Bartonella spp. (including B. henselae and B. clarridgeiae). This study also documents the first report of H. silvestris in ticks collected from domestic cats.

Environmental consequences of deltamethrin residues in cattle feces in an African agricultural landscape

Pyrethroid insecticides are widely used to control ectoparasites of livestock, particularly ticks and biting flies. Their use in African livestock systems is increasing, driven by the need to increase productivity and local food security. However, insecticide residues present in the dung after treatment are toxic to dung-inhabiting insects. In a semiarid agricultural habitat in Botswana, dung beetle adult mortality, brood ball production, and larval survival were compared between untreated cattle dung and cattle dung spiked with deltamethrin, to give concentrations of 0.01, 0.1, 0.5, or 1 ppm. Cattle dung-baited pitfall traps were used to measure repellent effects of deltamethrin in dung on Scarabaeidae. Dung decomposition rate was also examined. There was significantly increased mortality of adult dung beetles colonizing pats that contained deltamethrin compared to insecticide-free pats. Brood ball production was significantly reduced at concentrations of 1 ppm; larval survival was significantly reduced in dung containing 0.1 ppm deltamethrin and above. There was no difference in the number of Scarabaeidae attracted to dung containing any of the deltamethrin concentrations. Dung decomposition was significantly reduced even at the lowest concentration (0.01 ppm) compared to insecticide-free dung. The widespread use of deltamethrin in African agricultural ecosystems is a significant cause for concern; sustained use is likely to damage dung beetle populations and their provision of environmentally and economically important ecosystem services. Contaminated dung buried by paracoprid (tunneling) beetles may retain insecticidal effects, with impacts on developing larvae below ground. Lethal and sublethal effects on entire dung beetle (Scarabaeidae) communities could impair ecosystem function in agricultural landscapes.

Prevalence and distribution of Borrelia and Babesia species in ticks feeding on dogs in the U.K

Ticks were collected during March-July 2015 from dogs by veterinarians throughout the U.K. and used to estimate current prevalences and distributions of pathogens. DNA was extracted from 4750 ticks and subjected to polymerase chain reaction and sequence analysis to identify Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (Spirochaetales: Spirochaetaceae) and Babesia (Piroplasmida: Babesiidae) species. Of 4737 ticks [predominantly Ixodes ricinus Linneaus (Ixodida: Ixodidae)], B. burgdorferi s.l. was detected in 94 (2.0%). Four Borrelia genospecies were identified: Borrelia garinii (41.5%); Borrelia afzelli (31.9%); Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto (25.5%), and Borrelia spielmanii (1.1%). One Rhipicephalus sanguineus Latreille (Ixodida: Ixodidae), collected from a dog with a history of travel outside the U.K., was positive for B. garinii. Seventy ticks (1.5%) were positive for Babesia spp. Of these, 84.3% were positive for Babesia venatorum, 10.0% for Babesia vulpes sp. nov., 2.9% for Babesia divergens/Babesia capreoli and 1.4% for Babesia microti. One isolate of Babesia canis was detected in a Dermacentor reticulatus (Ixodida: Ixodidae) tick collected from a dog that had recently travelled to France. Prevalences of B. burgdorferi s.l. and Babesia spp. did not differ significantly between different regions of the U.K. The results map the widespread distribution of B. burgdorferi s.l. and Babesia spp. in ticks in the U.K. and highlight the potential for the introduction and establishment of exotic ticks and tick-borne pathogens.

First evidence of resistance to macrocyclic lactones in Psoroptes ovis sheep scab mites in the UK

Ovine psoroptic mange (sheep scab) is an infection of substantial economic and animal welfare concern in the UK. Its prevalence has increased rapidly over the last 20 years and management is dependent on a small number of acaricidal compounds, many of which are also used to control a range of other endoparasites and ectoparasites. Here, the effects of the macrocyclic lactone (ML) moxidectin was considered using in vitro assays against mites from four farm populations where persistent treatment failure had been reported: two in West Wales, one from the England/Wales border and one in Herefordshire. The data demonstrate resistance in mites from all four farms. This is the first quantitative evidence of ML resistance in Psoroptes mites in the UK. Given the similarities in their mode of action it is highly likely that cross-resistance across the range of this class of compound will be found. The development of resistance to moxidectin is of considerable concern given the already high prevalence of scab infection in some regions; major difficulties in scab management should be anticipated if ML resistance becomes widely established in the UK.

Contributions to the phylogeny of Ixodes (Pholeoixodes) canisuga, I. (Ph.) kaiseri, I. (Ph.) hexagonus and a simple pictorial key for the identification of their females

BACKGROUND

In Europe, hard ticks of the subgenus Pholeoixodes (Ixodidae: Ixodes) are usually associated with burrow-dwelling mammals and terrestrial birds. Reports of Pholeoixodes spp. from carnivores are frequently contradictory, and their identification is not based on key diagnostic characters. Therefore, the aims of the present study were to identify ticks collected from dogs, foxes and badgers in several European countries, and to reassess their systematic status with molecular analyses using two mitochondrial markers.

RESULTS

Between 2003 and 2017, 144 Pholeoixodes spp. ticks were collected in nine European countries. From accurate descriptions and comparison with type-materials, a simple illustrated identification key was compiled for adult females, by focusing on the shape of the anterior surface of basis capituli. Based on this key, 71 female ticks were identified as I. canisuga, 21 as I. kaiseri and 21 as I. hexagonus. DNA was extracted from these 113 female ticks, and from further 31 specimens. Fragments of two mitochondrial genes, cox1 (cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1) and 16S rRNA, were amplified and sequenced. Ixodes kaiseri had nine unique cox1 haplotypes, which showed 99.2-100% sequence identity, whereas I. canisuga and I. hexagonus had eleven and five cox1 haplotypes, respectively, with 99.5-100% sequence identity. The distribution of cox1 haplotypes reflected a geographical pattern. Pholeoixodes spp. ticks had fewer 16S rRNA haplotypes, with a lower degree of intraspecific divergence (99.5-100% sequence identity) and no geographical clustering. Phylogenetic analyses were in agreement with morphology: I. kaiseri and I. hexagonus (with the similar shape of the anterior surface of basis capituli) were genetically more closely related to each other than to I. canisuga. Phylogenetic analyses also showed that the subgenus Eschatocephalus (bat ticks) clustered within the subgenus Pholeoixodes.

CONCLUSIONS

A simple, illustrated identification key is provided for female Pholeoixodes ticks of carnivores (including I. hexagonus and I. rugicollis) to prevent future misidentification of these species. It is also shown that I. kaiseri is more widespread in Europe than previously thought. Phylogenetic analyses suggest that the subgenus Pholeoixodes is not monophyletic: either the subgenus Eschatocephalus should be included in Pholeoixodes, or the latter subgenus should be divided, which is a task for future studies.

Distribution of the tick Dermacentor reticulatus in the United Kingdom

The recent implication of Dermacentor reticulatus (Ixodida: Ixodidae) in the transmission of canine babesiosis in the U.K. has highlighted the lack of accurate published data on its distribution in this country. This paper aims to collate and appraise historical data for D. reticulatus, to supplement such data with more recent surveillance data and to report on field sampling conducted during 2009-2016. These updated data facilitate better understanding of the current distribution of this tick in the U.K., which will better inform disease risk assessments. There appear to be four known regions of the U.K. in which D. reticulatus currently occurs, including western Wales, North and South Devon, and Essex. The majority of foci are located in coastal sand dunes and maritime grasslands, including grazing marsh. However, more recently the tick has been detected in urban greenspace in Essex. The emergence of this tick as a vector of babesiosis in the U.K. and its recent apparent spread in Essex into urban greenspace highlight the need for continued surveillance and for further research into its status as a vector of human and veterinary pathogens.