Seasonal Dynamics of Fleas (Siphonaptera: Pulicidae, Ceratophyllidae and Leptopsyllidae) on Oryctolagus cuniculus in a Meso-Mediterranean Area of Central Spain

Flea infestations of wild rabbits were examined monthly in central Spain in a meso-Mediterranean area for 5 yr. A total of 1,180 wild rabbits were trapped and 7,022 fleas were collected from them. Overall, the prevalence was 74.1% with a mean flea index of 5.95 fleas per rabbit. Four flea species were identified: Spilopsyllus cuniculi (Dale, 1878) was the most abundant species (accounting for 74.3% of fleas collected) followed by Xenopsylla cunicularis (Smit, 1957), Odontopsyllus quirosi (Gil Collado, 1934), and Nosopsyllus fasciatus (Bosc, 1800) (18.9, 6.7, and 0.1%, respectively). The highest prevalence was observed in S. cuniculi (48.6%) followed by X. cunicularis, O. quirosi, and N. fasciatus (34.3, 20.0, and 0.6%, respectively). Odontopsyllus quirosi and S. cuniculi were mainly collected from autumn to spring with the peak of infestation in winter, while X. cunicularis was mainly found from spring to autumn with maximum levels of infestation during the summer months. The relevance of these findings is discussed.

Rabbit Bot Fly Furuncular, Tracheopulmonary, and Human Bot Fly Infestations in Connecticut (Oestridae: Cuterebrinae)

Endemic and tropical human bot infestations are relatively uncommon or unreported in the United States. We report two cases in Connecticut: an unusual furuncular and respiratory myiasis by the rabbit bot Cuterebra buccata (Fab.) (Diptera: Oestridae) in a 74-yr-old male and a case of human bot fly, Dermatobia hominis (L.) (Diptera: Oestridae), myiasis in a 4-yr-old female with a tropical travel history with her family. Identification of C. buccata was based morphologically, in part, on spinal armature and further corroborated by DNA sequencing of the mitochondrial COI gene and comparison to the National Center for Biotechnology Information GenBank DNA sequence database. The resulting annotated sequence data were deposited into the National Center for Biotechnology Information GenBank. The unique medical aspects, and limitations and specifics on bot fly larval habits and identification are discussed.

Surveillance of Zoonotic Parasites in Animals Involved in Animal-Assisted Interventions (AAIs)

Animal-assisted interventions (AAIs) are based on the establishment of a therapeutic relationship between animals and beneficiaries that is certain to provide positive effects, while currently, it reads as if AAIs aim at exposing stakeholders to potential risk of infection. The surveillance of zoonotic pathogens is necessary for guaranteeing common health. This study investigated the presence of potentially zoonotic parasites, including dermatophytes, in animals involved in AAIs. Between 2015 and 2017, 190 animals (equids, dogs, cats, birds, rabbits, rodents, and goats) were investigated. Anamnestic and management data were recorded. Individual faecal samples were analysed using a copromicroscopic procedure. Fur and skin were examined for ectoparasites during clinical examinations, and samples for mycological investigation were collected by brushing. Parasites were described in 60 (31.6%) investigated animals. Thirteen out of the 60 (21.7%) animals harboured potentially zoonotic parasites, mainly recovered in dogs (Ancylostomatidae, Eucoleus aerophilus, Toxocara canis, and Giardia duodenalis) and a cat (G. duodenalis). Nannizzia gypsea and Paraphyton mirabile, potential agents of cutaneous mycosis, were isolated in a dog and a horse, respectively. No ectoparasites were found. AAIs might represent a source of infections either directly or via environmental contamination. Thus, active surveillance is necessary and animal screenings should be planned and scheduled according to the risk of exposure.

Presence of eimerid oocysts in faeces of a quarantined dog in Iceland is explained by coprophagic behaviour prior to its importation. Case report

BACKGROUND

All dogs imported into Iceland must undergo mandatory quarantine in a special station before introduction into the country. A faecal sample is collected from the first stool passed by the dog in this station and subsequently examined for the presence of intestinal parasite stages.

CASE PRESENTATION

In May 2019 unsporulated oocysts were detected in faeces from a 7-year-old household dog that had been imported from Sweden. Most of the oocysts studied strongly resembled those of Eimeria canis Wenyon, 1923. As this species is not valid, the purpose of the present article was to identify the correct species and examine their possible origin. Studies confirmed the presence of two distinct unsporulated oocyst morphotypes in the faeces; measurements and photomicrographs confirmed their identification as Eimeria magna Pérard, 1925 and Eimeria stiedai (Lindemann, 1865) Kisskalt and Hartmann, 1907, both common parasites of European rabbits, Oryctolagus cuniculus (L., 1758). When the owner of the dog was questioned about the food administrated to the dog prior to its import to Iceland, it turned out that it had exclusively been fed dry dog food pellets. However, the owner also reported that on the morning prior to transportation to Iceland, the dog was allowed to move freely in a grassland area where rabbits are common and heaps of their faeces are present. Furthermore, the owner confirmed that the dog consumed rabbit faeces that morning.

CONCLUSION

It is believed that this coprophagic behaviour can explain the detection of rabbit eimerids in the dog's faeces, and that such behaviour must be taken into consideration by veterinarians and other diagnostic personnel when they detect atypical cysts or eggs during coprological examinations.

Coccidiosis – a problem in backyard rabbitries

This paper focuses on parasites of the genus Eimeria in rabbits kept in two backyard farms – from Poland (herd A) and Ukraine (herd B). The concentration McMaster technique and sporulation was applied to determine the level of infection, as well as to identify the species composition. The Eimeria sp. oocysts were present in all collected samples (prevalence = 100%), and four to nine coccidian species were identified in the herd A and B, respectively. Eimeria media was the most common species, and the presence of the most pathogenic E. intestinalis and E. flavescens was observed in both studied rabbitries. The results obtained suggest that coccidiosis may cause a serious risk for rabbits kept in backyard farms, therefore prevention guidelines in relation to the backyard breeding are crucial to be developed.

Amblyomma maculatum-associated rickettsiae in vector tissues and vertebrate hosts during tick feeding

Rickettsia parkeri, a causative agent of spotted fever rickettsiosis, is transmitted by Amblyomma maculatum (Gulf Coast tick), a tick that may also carry a non-pathogenic spotted fever group Rickettsia, "Candidatus Rickettsia andeanae". Here, we evaluated R. parkeri and "Candidatus R. andeanae" in tissues from A. maculatum prior to, during, and after blood feeding on rabbits. Using colony-reared A. maculatum that were capillary-fed uninfected cells, R. parkeri, "Candidatus R. andeanae", or both rickettsiae, we detected higher levels of Rickettsia spp. in the respective treatment groups. Rickettsial levels increased during blood feeding for both R. parkeri and "Candidatus R. andeanae", with a greater increase in R. parkeri in co-infected ticks compared to singly-infected ticks. We detected transovarial transmission of "Candidatus R. andeanae" in egg and larval cohorts and confirmed vertical transmission of R. parkeri in one group of larvae. Rabbits from all Rickettsia-exposed groups seroconverted on immunofluorescent antibody testing using R. parkeri antigen. Visualization of "Candidatus R. andeanae" in tick salivary glands suggested potential transmission via tick feeding. Here, rickettsial levels in artificially infected ticks demonstrate changes during feeding and transovarial transmission that may be relevant for interpreting rickettsial levels detected in wild A. maculatum.

Has the red sheep tick, Haemaphysalis punctata, recently expanded its range in England?

The red sheep tick, Haemaphysalis punctata (Ixodida: Ixodidae), has been reported as present in the U.K. for more than a century; however, very little has been written about its distribution. In recent years, numbers of detections of this tick species reported to the Public Health England (PHE) Tick Surveillance Scheme have increased. This rise in the number of records may be attributable to increased tick surveillance activities or to the increased distribution of this species of tick in parts of England. This paper reviews published reports of H. punctata and all data held by the Biological Records Centre and PHE, and summarizes a number of field studies conducted by PHE and the Animal and Plant Health Agency over the past 8 years. It would appear from the evidence presented here that H. punctata may be expanding its range across the eastern part of the South Downs National Park, where there have also been reports of this tick species biting humans. It is possible that the movement of sheep between grassland sites is facilitating this spread. Further studies that better elucidate the ecology of this tick and its possible role as a vector of human and veterinary diseases are now warranted.

A chitinase-like protein from Sarcoptes scabiei as a candidate anti-mite vaccine that contributes to immune protection in rabbits

BACKGROUND

Scabies is caused by Sarcoptes scabiei burrowing into the stratum corneum of the host's skin and is detrimental to the health of humans and animals. Vaccines are an attractive alternative to replace the acaricides currently used in their control.

METHODS

In the present study, the S. scabiei chitinase-like protein 5 (SsCLP5) was characterized and recombinant SsCLP5 (rSsCLP5) was evaluated as a candidate vaccine protein for anti-mite protection in rabbits. The expression, characterization and immunolocalization of SsCLP5 were examined. Vaccination experiments were performed on three test groups (n = 12 per group) immunized with purified rSsCLP5. Control groups (n = 12 per group) were immunized with PBS, QuilA saponin or empty vector protein. After challenge, the inflammatory reaction and skin lesions were graded and rSsCLP5 indirect ELISA was used to detect antibody IgG levels in serum samples at the time of vaccination and post-challenge.

RESULTS

The results showed that rSsCLP5 had high immunoreactivity and immunogenicity. In S. scabiei, SsCLP5 had a wide distribution in the chewing mouthpart, legs and exoskeleton, especially the outer layer of the exoskeleton. Vaccination with rSsCLP5 resulted in 74.3% (26/35) of rabbits showing no detectable lesions after challenge with S. scabiei.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data demonstrate that rSsCLP5 is a promising candidate for a recombinant protein-based vaccine against S. scabiei. This study also provides a method for studying scabies vaccine using rabbit as an animal model and a basis for screening more effective candidate proteins.

The first case of Leporacarus gibbus infestation in a rabbit from Poland

This case report presents asymptomatic infestation with Leporacarus gibbus (formerly Listrophorus gibbus) in a pet rabbit. This is the first report of L. gibbus infestation in a pet rabbit from Poland. Previously, infestation in Poland had been detected only in hares.

Detection and characterization of a novel spotted fever group Rickettsia genotype in Haemaphysalis leporispalustris from California, USA

The rabbit tick, Haemaphysalis leporispalustris Packard, is known for its association with Rickettsia rickettsii as it harbors both virulent and avirulent strains of this pathogen. In this manuscript we report findings and preliminary characterization of a novel spotted fever group rickettsia (SFGR) in rabbit ticks from California, USA. Rickettsia sp. CA6269 (proposed "Candidatus Rickettsia lanei") is most related to known R. rickettsii isolates but belongs to its own well-supported branch different from those of all R. rickettsii including strain Hlp2 and from Rickettsia sp. 364D (also known as R. philipii) and R. peacockii. This SFGR probably exhibits both transovarial and transstadial survival since it was found in both questing larvae and nymphs. Although this rabbit tick does not frequently bite humans, its role in maintenance of other rickettsial agents and this novel SFGR warrant further investigation.

Microexon gene transcriptional profiles and evolution provide insights into blood processing by the Schistosoma japonicum esophagus

Background

Adult schistosomes have a well-developed alimentary tract comprising an oral sucker around the mouth, a short esophagus and a blind ending gut. The esophagus is not simply a muscular tube for conducting blood from the mouth to gut but is divided into compartments, surrounded by anterior and posterior glands, where processing of ingested blood is initiated. Self-cure of rhesus macaques from a Schistosoma japonicum infection appears to operate by blocking the secretory functions of these glands so that the worms cease feeding and slowly starve to death. Here we use subtractive RNASeq to characterise the genes encoding the principal secretory products of S. japonicum esophageal glands, preparatory to evaluating their relevance as targets of the self-cure process.

Methodology/Principal findings

The heads and a small portion of the rear end of male and female S. japonicum worms were separately enriched by microdissection, for mRNA isolation and library construction. The sequence reads were then assembled de novo using Trinity and those genes enriched more than eightfold in the head preparation were subjected to detailed bioinformatics analysis. Of the 62 genes selected from the male heads, more than one third comprised MEGs encoding secreted or membrane-anchored proteins. Database searching using conserved motifs revealed that the MEG-4 and MEG-8/9 families had counterparts in the bird schistosome Trichobilharzia regenti, indicating an ancient association with blood processing. A second group of MEGs, including a MEG-26 family, encoded short peptides with amphipathic properties that most likely interact with ingested host cell membranes to destabilise them. A number of lysosomal hydrolases, two protease inhibitors, a secreted VAL and a putative natterin complete the line-up. There was surprisingly little difference between expression patterns in males and females despite the latter processing much more blood.

Significance/Conclusions

The mixture of approximately 40 proteins specifically secreted by the esophageal glands is responsible for initiating blood processing in the adult worm esophagus. They comprise the potential targets for the self-cure process in the rhesus macaque, and thus represent a completely new cohort of secreted proteins that can be investigated as vaccine candidates.

Schistosomes are parasitic flatworms inhabiting the human bloodstream, surrounded by and feeding on humoral and cellular components of the immune system. They are normally long-lived but the rhesus macaque is able to mount a self-cure response directed against the esophageal secretions of the adult Schistosoma japonicum so that they stop feeding and slowly starve to death. The worm esophagus is a short tube connecting mouth to gut surrounded by anterior and posterior glands and our aim in this study was to identify the genes encoding the gland secretions. For this purpose we isolated the messenger RNA from both male and female worm heads and tails and obtained many millions of sequences. These were assembled into gene coding sequences using bioinformatics and then genes differentially expressed in the head region were identified by a subtraction process. We then focused on those genes encoding proteins with a leader sequence indicating their secretory status. The result is an inventory of approximately 40 genes; some encode protein binding motifs while others encode a short helix with a hydrophobic face, which may interact with host cell membranes. Genes encoding enzymes, protease inhibitors and a venom-like protein were also found. These proteins are being evaluated for their interactions with the antibodies generated by macaques during the self-cure process.

Unique Strain of Rickettsia parkeri Associated with the Hard Tick Dermacentor parumapertus Neumann in the Western United States

In 1953, investigators at the Rocky Mountain Laboratories in Hamilton, MT, described the isolation of a spotted fever group Rickettsia (SFGR) species from Dermacentor parumapertus ticks collected from black-tailed jackrabbits (Lepus californicus) in northern Nevada. Several decades later, investigators characterized this SFGR (designated the parumapertus agent) by using mouse serotyping methods and determined that it represented a distinct rickettsial serotype closely related to Rickettsia parkeri; nonetheless, the parumapertus agent was not further characterized or studied. To our knowledge, no isolates of the parumapertus agent remain in any rickettsial culture collection, which precludes contemporary phylogenetic placement of this enigmatic SFGR. To rediscover the parumapertus agent, adult-stage D. parumapertus ticks were collected from black-tailed jackrabbits shot or encountered as roadkills in Arizona, Utah, or Texas from 2011 to 2016. A total of 339 ticks were collected and evaluated for infection with Rickettsia species. Of 112 D. parumapertus ticks collected in south Texas, 16 (14.3%) contained partial ompA sequences with the closest identity (99.6%) to Rickettsia sp. strain Atlantic rainforest Aa46, an SFGR that is closely related or identical to an SFGR species that causes a mild rickettsiosis in several states of Brazil. A pure isolate, designated strain Black Gap, was cultivated in Vero E6 cells, and sequence analysis of the rrs, gltA, sca0, sca5, and sca4 genes also revealed the closest genetic identity to Rickettsia sp. Atlantic rainforest Aa46. Phylogenetic analysis of the five concatenated rickettsial genes place Rickettsia sp. strain Black Gap and Rickettsia sp. Atlantic rainforest Aa46 with R. parkeri in a distinct and well-supported clade.IMPORTANCE We suggest that Rickettsia sp. Black Gap and Rickettsia sp. Atlantic rainforest Aa46 represent nearly identical strains of R. parkeri and that Rickettsia sp. Black Gap or a very similar strain of R. parkeri represents the parumapertus agent. The close genetic relatedness among these taxa, as well as the response of guinea pigs infected with the Black Gap strain, suggests that R. parkeri Black Gap could cause disease in humans. The identification of this organism could also account, at least in part, for the remarkable differences in severity ascribed to Rocky Mountain spotted fever (RMSF) among various regions of the American West during the early 20th century. We suggest that the wide variation in case fatality rates attributed to RMSF could have occurred by the inadvertent inclusion of cases of milder disease caused by R. parkeri Black Gap.

Manual for maintenance of multi-host ixodid ticks in the laboratory

Use of laboratory animals as hosts for blood-sucking arthropods remains a time-proven and the most efficient method for establishment and propagation of slowly feeding ixodid ticks, despite introduction of techniques involving artificial feeding on either animal skins or synthetic membranes. New Zealand White rabbits are usually the most accessible and most suitable hosts routinely used for establishment and maintenance of a large variety of multi-host tick species. Here we describe standard procedures for maintaining colonies of multi-host ixodid ticks by feeding all developmental stages (larvae, nymphs, and adults) upon New Zealand White rabbits. When needed, the same procedures can be easily adapted to other species of laboratory or domestic animals from mice to dogs and goats. A summary of our experience in maintaining laboratory colonies of Ixodes scapularis, Ixodes pacificus, Amblyomma americanum, Dermacentor variabilis, Dermacentor occidentalis, Haemaphysalis leporispalustris, and Rhipicephalus sanguineus with descriptions of the complete laboratory life cycles and reliable production of uninfected ticks under standardized conditions has been published by Troughton and Levin (J Med Entomol 44:732-740, 2007). Here we provide step-by-step recommendations for various procedures used in the maintenance of ixodid tick colonies based on over 20 years of experience.

Protein Self-Marking by Ectoparasites: A Case Study Using Bed Bugs (Hemiptera: Cimicidae)

The ability to mark individuals is a critical feature of many entomological investigations, including dispersal studies. Insect dispersal is generally investigated using mark-release-recapture techniques, whereby marked individuals are released at a known location and then captured at a measured distance. Ectoparasite dispersal has historically been challenging to study, in part because of the ethical concerns associated with releasing marked individuals. Here, we introduce the protein self-marking technique, whereby ectoparasites mark themselves in the field by feeding on the blood of an introduced host. We demonstrate the potential of this technique using laboratory-reared bed bugs (Cimex lectularius L.) that marked themselves by feeding on either rabbit or chicken blood. We then used enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays to detect host-specific blood serum proteins in bed bugs. We assessed these protein markers' ability to 1) distinctively identify marked individuals, 2) persist following multiple feedings on an alternate diet, 3) persist over time across a range of temperatures, and 4) transfer from marked to unmarked individuals. Protein markers were detectable in bed bugs before and after molting, remained detectible after multiple feedings on an alternate diet, persisted regardless of whether an individual was starved or fed on an alternate diet following original mark acquisition, and did not transfer between individuals. The duration of detectability depended on temperature. Our results suggest that protein self-marking is an effective technique for marking bed bugs and holds promise for use in dispersal studies of ectoparasitic insects.

Occurrence of Toxoplasma gondii in domestic rabbits of Northeastern Brazil

The present study aimed to conduct a serosurvey of toxoplasmosis in domestic rabbits of Northeastern Brazil. Blood samples and tissue fragments (brain, heart and diaphragm) were collected from 150 and 54 rabbits from the state of Pernambuco, Brazil, respectively. The serum samples were subjected to serological analysis (Modified Agglutination Test - MAT) and the tissue samples were assessed by PCR and histopathological analysis. Data collected through questionnaires were subjected to analysis of risk factors. According to the MAT and the PCR results, 6.7% (10/150; CI 3.2%-11.9%) of the rabbits were positive for anti-T. gondii antibodies and 9.25% (5/54) of the tissue fragments were positive for T. gondii DNA, respectively. Lesions associated with T. gondii infection, mainly characterized by granuloma, mononuclear cell infiltrates, degeneration areas and necrosis in brain and heart, were detected in the histopathological analysis. The risk factors associated with T. gondii infection identified in the present study were homemade food (odds ratio = 39.00) and contact between cats and rabbits (odds ratio = 52.00). This is the first report of toxoplasmosis in rabbits of Northeastern Brazil. The management problems identified in the present study must be corrected to reduce the frequency of positive animals in herds of rabbits.

Abnormal Development of Haemaphysalis qinghaiensis (Acari: Ixodidae)

A single Haemaphysalis qinghaiensis specimen exhibiting abnormal morphology was collected from a tick laboratory colony. The tick had a heart-shaped body with partial twinning of the posterior region (with two anal orifices and two genital grooves). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of teratological changes in H. qinghaiensis The abnormal morphological features are described herein.

Life cycle of Amblyomma integrum (Acari: Ixodidae) under laboratory conditions

Amblyomma integrum is a hard tick infesting mainly buffalo and cattle and has been identified as an agent of human otoacariasis in Sri Lanka. Data on the life cycle pattern of A. integrum were collected by experimental infestation on New Zealand white rabbits under laboratory conditions. Wild-caught females laid 55-7389 eggs for 2-35 days after spending a latent period of 10-25 days. Egg incubation period was 31-105 days and the newly emerged larvae started feeding after 4-11 days. Larvae dropped off after feeding and they moulted into nymphs after 10-16 days. Nymphs actively fed on rabbits for 4-8 days and dropped off. Engorged nymphs took 11-25 days for moulting before emerging as adults. The male:female sex ratio of the adults moulted under laboratory conditions was 11:9. All the stages showed periodicity in engorgement and dropping off. The three-host life cycle was completed within 74-245 days with an average of 152.9 days. The mean Reproductive Efficiency Index (REI) and Reproductive Aptitude Index (RAI) were 3.6 and 1.1, respectively. Females hatched in the laboratory did not successfully feed on New Zealand white rabbits. The wild-caught females which fed on buffaloes had prolonged pre-oviposition and oviposition periods, low REI, low RAI and low eclosion under controlled laboratory conditions compared to other tick species. Although larva and nymphs of A. integrum successfully fed on New Zealand white rabbits under laboratory conditions, full life cycle was not completed because the adult females did not feed on rabbits.

Characterization of the life cycle of the tick Haemaphysalis tibetensis under field conditions in Qinghai-Tibet plateau

The tick Haemaphysalis tibetensis Hoogstraal is found uniquely in the Qinghai-Tibet plateau of Tibet and Gansu of China. Not much is known of this tick. Therefore, in this study we investigated the life cycle of H. tibetensis under field conditions from March 2014 to March 2015 in Damxung County, north Lhasa City in Tibet (Autonomous Region in China). The results of the study demonstrated that the tick H. tibetensis requires an average of 177.8 days (range 129-202 days) to complete a life cycle, with rabbits supplied as hosts in the field plot. Under natural lighting and climate conditions, the feeding period of females was an average of 7.7 days, and the pre-oviposition period was 9.4 days, followed by 28.2 days for oviposition. The premolting period of nymphs lasted 52.7 days, which was the longest life cycle phase. The average weight ratio of engorged to unfed females was 58.2. Additionally, there was a highly positive correlation between the weight of engorged and the number of the eggs that were laid (r = 0.83, P < 0.05). The reproductive efficiency index and reproductive fitness index in females were 5.1 and 4.7, respectively.

Life cycle of Nosomma monstrosum (Acari: Ixodidae) under laboratory conditions

Nosomma monstrosum (Nuttall & Warburton) is a hard tick infesting mainly buffalo and cattle in Sri Lanka. Biological data on the life cycle pattern of N. monstrosum were collected using experimental infestation on New Zealand white rabbits under laboratory conditions. The three-host life cycle was completed within 64-102 days. Eggs hatched after 20-29 days of incubation and the larvae hatched out started feeding which lasted for 2-4 days. After a moulting period of 8-11 days nymphs emerge and they actively fed for 2-4 days. Subsequently the nymphs took 15-18 days for moulting before emerging as adults. Freshly moulted females fed for 7-8 days and remained latent for 4-5 days before starting the oviposition. Females laid 3864-12,520 eggs for 11-17 days. The male: female sex ratio was 8:3 in the adults which were moulted under laboratory conditions. Strong positive correlations were found in female weight with number of eggs laid and REI. Females raised from the first generation of eggs had higher oviposition periods, higher REI, laid ten times more eggs, and lower pre-oviposition periods compared to those collected from the wild. When a suitable host is given, N. monstrosum could successfully complete its three-host life cycle under laboratory conditions.

Entomofaunal Succession Patterns on Burnt and Unburnt Rabbit Carrion

The influence of burning on the decomposition of rabbit carcasses and on insect succession was investigated in three different habitats (agricultural, desert, and urban) in order to provide data for estimating the postmortem interval (PMI). Each site had six carcasses divided into two groups of three rabbits, with the carcasses in one group being partially burned, while the others were not burned. Carrion reached the dry stage within 5 d in the desert and urban habitats and 13 d in the agricultural habitat. The unburnt and burnt carcasses also decomposed at a similar rate in the three study habitats. Adult dipteran and coleopteran insects were collected daily. A total of 24 species and 2,381 specimens were collected; of these, 732 specimens from 21 species were taken from the partially burnt carcasses and 1,649 specimens from 21 species from the unburnt carcasses. There were significantly distinct insect communities between the agricultural habitat and the desert and urban habitats. There were also significant differences in the insect communities between the decay stage and other stages, with fresh and dry stages recording the lowest number of insects. There were some species which only presented themselves during the decay stage of decomposition, namely, Platypalpus sp., Desmometopa varipalpis Malloch, Atherigona orientalis (Schiner), Atherigona yorki Deeming, Musca sorbens Weidemann, and Onthophagus nitidulus Klug. In addition, there were significant distinctions in the insect communities between unburnt carcasses and burnt carcasses. The presence of these distinctions means that it is possible to estimate the PMI from partially burnt rabbit carcasses.

Amblyomma americanum tick saliva insulin-like growth factor binding protein-related protein 1 binds insulin but not insulin-like growth factors

Silencing Amblyomma americanum insulin-like growth factor binding protein-related protein 1 (AamIGFBP-rP1) mRNA prevented ticks from feeding to repletion. In this study, we used recombinant (r)AamIGFBP-rP1 in a series of assays to obtain further insight into the role(s) of this protein in tick feeding regulation. Our results suggest that AamIGFBP-1 is an antigenic protein that is apparently exclusively expressed in salivary glands. We found that both males and females secrete AamIGFBP-rP1 into the host during feeding and confirmed that female ticks secrete this protein from within 24-48 h after attachment. Our data suggest that native AamIGFBP-rP1 is a functional insulin binding protein in that both yeast- and insect cell-expressed rAamIGFBP-rP1 bound insulin, but not insulin-like growth factors. When subjected to anti-blood clotting and platelet aggregation assays, rAamIGFBP-rP1 did not have any effect. Unlike human IGFBP-rP1, which is controlled by trypsinization, rAamIGFBP-rP1 is resistant to digestion, suggesting that the tick protein may not be under mammalian host control at the tick feeding site. The majority of tick-borne pathogens are transmitted 48 h after the tick has attached. Thus, the demonstrated antigenicity and secretion into the host within 24-48 h of the tick starting to feed makes AamIGFBP-rP1 an attractive target for antitick vaccine development.

First detection of Sarcoptes scabiei from domesticated pig (Sus scrofa) and genetic characterization of S. scabiei from pet, farm and wild hosts in Israel

In this report we describe for the first time the detection of Sarcoptes scabiei type suis mites on domestic pigs in Israel and examine its genetic variation compared with S. sabiei from other hosts. Microscopic examination of skin samples from S. scabiei-infested pigs (Sus scrofa domesticus) revealed all developmental stages of S. scabiei. To detect genetic differences between S. scabiei from different hosts, samples obtained from pig, rabbits (Orictolagus cuniculus), fox (Vulpes vulpes), jackal (Canis aureus) and hedgehog (Erinaceus concolor) were compared with GenBank-annotated sequences of three genetic markers. Segments from the following genes were examined: cytochrome C oxidase subunit 1 (COX1), glutathione-S-transferase 1 (GST1), and voltage-sensitive sodium channel (VSSC). COX1 analysis did not show correlation between host preference and genetic identity. However, GST1 and VSSC had a higher percentage of identical sites within S. scabiei type suis sequences, compared with samples from other hosts. Taking into account the limited numbers of GST1 and VSSC sequences available for comparison, this high similarity between sequences of geographically-distant, but host-related populations, may suggest that different host preference is at least partially correlated with genetic differences. This finding may help in future studies of the factors that drive host preferences in this parasite.

Experimental infections of rabbits with proliferative and latent stages of Besnoitia besnoiti

Cattle besnoitiosis due to Besnoitia besnoiti is spreading across Europe and is responsible for severe economic losses in newly infected herds. Experimentally speaking, rabbits have been found to be susceptible to this parasite. The adaptation of B. besnoiti to rabbits may offer a new, easier and cheaper model of investigation for this disease. This study compared the virulence between tachyzoites and bradyzoites of B. besnoiti in rabbits. Eighteen New Zealand rabbits were allocated into three groups of six animals each. The rabbits from the control (group C), "tachyzoite" (group T) and "bradyzoite" (group B) groups were subcutaneously injected in the right flank with 66 μg of ovalbumin, 6.10(6) tachyzoites (125th passage on Vero cells) and 6.10(6) bradyzoites (collected from a natural infected cow) of B. besnoiti, respectively. Clinical follow-up and blood sampling for serological survey and qPCR were performed during 10 weeks until euthanasia. Molecular and immunohistochemistry examination was achieved on 25 samples of tissue per rabbit. Seroconversion occurred in group T without any clinical signs. Rabbits of group B exhibited a febrile condition (temperature above 40 °C from day 8 to day 11 following injection) with positive qPCR in blood. Cysts of B. besnoiti were found on skin samples and organs of rabbits from group B in tissue explored with threshold cycle (Ct) values below 30. These results suggest a higher virulence of bradyzoites in rabbits than Vero cell-cultivated tachyzoites. The proposed model could be used to assess the in vivo effectiveness of vaccine or drugs against cattle besnoitiosis.

Coccidiosis in European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus algirus) populations in the Iberian Peninsula

The European rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus is a keystone species from the Iberian Peninsula where viral diseases have played a prominent role in regulating their populations. Coccidiosis, a parasitic disease caused primarily by Eimeria spp., is also thought to have important negative effects. However, few studies have investigated the impact of coccidia on wild European rabbit populations on the Iberian Peninsula. Here we estimate coccidian prevalence in rabbit faecal samples collected along transects established in two ecological regions. Six Eimeria species, with different pathogenicity, were identified (E. coecicola, E. perforans, E media, E. magna, E. irresidua and E. flavescens). Species diversity varied significantly between regions although mean oocyst excretion levels were generally low in both areas (57.61 s.d.±78.07 and 17.03 s.d.±27.72, oocyst per gram of rabbit faeces). This study is the first to describe the composition of the Eimeria spp. assemblage for wild rabbit populations on the Iberian Peninsula and provides fundamental information for future studies on the potential interaction of viral and parasitic diseases.

Control of Tick Infestations in Oryctolagus cuniculus (Lagomorpha: Leporidae) With Spinosad Under Laboratory and Field Conditions

Because of great economic loss in the world's livestock industry, and the serious risks to human health, the control of ticks and tick-borne diseases is one of the most important health management issues today. Current methodology involves integrated tick control for preventing the development of resistance. Rabbits are hosts for immature stages of the three-host tick Hyalomma lusitanicum Koch; so, we focus on this host as a strategy to interrupt the tick life cycle. Spinosad is an insecticide-acaricide, produced by the fermentation of metabolites of the actinomycete bacterium Saccharopolyspora spinosa. We administered spinosad orally by force-feeding naturally and artificially infested rabbits, and under field conditions by administering treated food via a hopper during the period of peak infestation and reinfestation risk for rabbits. No living larvae were recovered from treated laboratory rabbits. In naturally infested rabbits, the number of live ticks collected from treated rabbits (mean = 0.62 ticks per ear) was significantly lower than those recovered from untreated rabbits (mean = 7.27; P < 0.001), whereas the number of dead ticks collected from untreated rabbits (mean = 6.53) was significantly lower than those recovered from treated rabbits (mean = 18.62; P < 0.001). In addition, free and continually reinfested rabbits freely ingested low doses of spinosad, reducing the tick burden from 48.00 (Day 0) to 26.09 ticks per ear in treated rabbits (Day 16), whereas controls maintained the infection (46.64). This strategy could be useful as an alternative or supplement to traditional acaricides in tick control programs.

Insect Colonization and Succession on Rabbit Carcasses in Southwestern Mountains of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

This study describes for the first time the necrophagous insects attracted to carcasses of the European rabbit in the mountains of Al-Baha Province of southwestern Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). Twenty-four rabbit carcasses were exposed in 2010 during spring (March, April, and May), summer (June, July, and August), and autumn (September, October, and November). The calliphorid fly species, Calliphora vicina Robineau-Desvoidy, Chrysomya marginalis (Wiedemann), Chrysomya chloropyga (Wiedemann), Chrysomya albiceps (Wiedemann), and Lucilia cuprina (Wiedemann), the sarcophagid Liosarcophaga babiyari (Lehrer), and muscoid flies Musca domestica (L.) and Musca stabulans Fallén were attracted to the carcasses. Seven species of Coleoptera, the dermestid Dermestes maculatus (De Geer), three species of hister beetles, Saprinus moyses Marseul, Saprinus ruber gemminigeri, and Saprinus chalcites (Illiger), the tenebrionid Himatismus sp., the clerid species, Necrobia ruficollis (F.), and the staphylinid beetle Creophilous maxillosus (L.) were also attracted to the rabbit carcasses. One species of adult pteromalid fly pupal parasitoid Nasonia sp. was also collected. The dominant larvae on all the rabbit carcasses were Ch. albiceps, L. cuprina, and Li. babiyari. Insect activity caused rabbit carcasses to decompose faster during summer (21.38 ± 0.49 d) compared with spring (27.5 ± 0.73 d) and autumn (30.38 ± 0.50 d). This study indicates that in this region of KSA, Ch. albiceps, L. cuprina, and Li. babiyari are species useful for estimating minimal postmortem intervals.

Infections do not predict shedding in co-infections with two helminths from a natural system

Given the health and economic burden associated with the widespread occurrence of co-infections in humans and agricultural animals, understanding how coinfections contribute to host heterogeneity to infection and transmission is critical if we are to assess risk of infection based on host characteristics. Here, we examine whether host heterogeneity to infection leads to similar heterogeneity in transmission in a population of rabbits single and co-infected with two helminths and monitored monthly for eight years. Compared to single infections, co-infected rabbits carried higher Trichostrongylus retortaeformis intensities, shorter worms with fewer eggs in utero, and shed similar numbers of parasite eggs. In contrast, the same co-infected rabbits harbored fewer Graphidium strigosum with longer bodies and more eggs in utero, and shed more eggs of this helminth. A positive density-dependent relationship between fecundity and intensity was found for T. retortaeformis but not G. strigosum in co-infected rabbits. Juvenile rabbits contributed to most of the infection and shedding of T. retortaeformis, while adult hosts were more important for G. strigosum dynamics of infection and transmission, and this pattern was consistent in single and co-infected individuals. This host-parasite system suggests that we cannot predict the pattern of parasite shedding during co-infections based on intensity of infection alone. We suggest that a mismatching between susceptibility and infectiousness should be expected in helminth coinfections and should not be overlooked.

Morphological characteristics and developmental changes of the ovary in the tick Haemaphysalis longicornis Neumann

Haemaphysalis longicornis (Ixodida: Ixodidae) is an important vector of transovarially transmitted parasites of the genus Babesia (Piroplasmida: Babesiidae). In the present study, we investigated the morphological characteristics and developmental changes of the ovary of H. longicornis. We show that the ovary of H. longicornis has a single tubular structure and is surrounded by a tunica propria. There is a longitudinal groove along one side of the ovary. During feeding and after engorgement, great changes can be observed in the ovary of H. longicornis and two rapid growth phases can be detected. The number of major protein bands of the ovary is significantly increased from day 3 of feeding and reaches a maximum on the day of engorgement. Therefore, the great diversity of proteins in the ovaries of H. longicornis can facilitate the identification of new targets for vaccine development.

The first recorded outbreak of cryptosporidiosis due to Cryptosporidium cuniculus (formerly rabbit genotype), following a water quality incident

We report the first identified outbreak of cryptosporidiosis with Cryptosporidium cuniculus following a water quality incident in Northamptonshire, UK. A standardised, enhanced Cryptosporidium exposure questionnaire was administered to all cases of cryptosporidiosis after the incident. Stool samples, water testing, microscopy slides and rabbit gut contents positive for Cryptosporidium were typed at the Cryptosporidium Reference Unit, Singleton Hospital, Swansea. Twenty-three people were microbiologically linked to the incident although other evidence suggests an excess of 422 cases of cryptosporidiosis above baseline. Most were adult females; unusually for cryptosporidiosis there were no affected children identified under the age of 5 years. Water consumption was possibly higher than in national drinking water consumption patterns. Diarrhoea duration was negatively correlated to distance from the water treatment works where the contamination occurred. Oocyst counts were highest in water storage facilities. This outbreak is the first caused by C. cuniculus infection to have been noted and it has conclusively demonstrated that this species can be a human pathogen. Although symptomatically similar to cryptosporidiosis from C. parvum or C. hominis, this outbreak has revealed some differences, in particular no children under 5 were identified and females were over-represented. These dissimilarities are unexplained although we postulate possible explanations.

Characterisation and analysis of thioredoxin peroxidase as a potential antigen for the serodiagnosis of sarcoptic mange in rabbits by dot-ELISA

BACKGROUND

Scabies caused by Sarcoptes scabiei is a widespread but a neglected tropical zoonosis. In this study, we characterised a S. scabiei thioredoxin peroxidase (SsTPx) and evaluated a recombinant SsTPx as a diagnostic antigen in rabbits.

METHODS

The open reading frame of the gene encoding SsTPx-2 was amplified and the recombinant protein was expressed in Escherichia coli cells and purified. SsTPx was localized in mite tissue by immunolocalisation using the purified recombinant protein. Serodiagnosis assays were carried out in 203 New Zealand White rabbit serum samples by dot-ELISA.

RESULT

The open reading frame (489 bp) of the gene encodes an 18.11 kDa protein, which showed highly homology to that of Psoroptes cuniculi (98.77% identity) and belongs to the 2-Cys family of peroxiredoxins. SsTPx was mainly distributed in muscle tissues of mites, integument of the epidermis and the anterior end of S. scabiei. Although SsTPx cross-reactivity with psoroptic mites was observed, the SsTPx dot-ELISA showed excellent diagnostic ability, with 95.3% sensitivity and 93.8% specificity in mange-infected and uninfected groups.

CONCLUSIONS

This study showed that the purified SsTPx is a highly sensitive antigen for the diagnosis of mange infection by dot-ELISA. This technique is a rapid and convenient method that can be used worldwide for the clinical diagnosis of sarcoptic mange in rabbits, and is especially useful in developing regions.

Climate changes influence free-living stages of soil-transmitted parasites of European rabbits

Climate warming has been suggested to augment the risk of infectious disease outbreaks by extending the seasonal window for parasite growth and by increasing the rate of transmission. Understanding how this occurs in parasite-host systems is important for appreciating long-term and seasonal changes in host exposure to infection and to reduce species extinction caused by diseases. We investigated how free-living stages of two soil-transmitted helminths of the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) responded to experimental changes in temperature by performing laboratory experiments with environmental chambers and field manipulations using open-top-chambers. This study was motivated by our previous observations that air temperature has increased over the last 30 years in our field site and that during this period intensity of infection of Graphidium strigosum but not Trichostrongylus retortaeformis was positively associated with this temperature increase. Laboratory and field experiments showed that both parasites accelerated egg development and increased hatching rate and larval survival in response to accumulating thermal energy. Both parasites behaved similarly when exposed to diverse temperature regimes, decadal trends, and monthly fluctuations, however, T. retortaeformis was more successful than G. strigosum by showing higher rates of egg hatching and larval survival. Across the months, the first day of hatching occurred earlier in warmer conditions suggesting that climate warming can lengthen the period of parasite growth and host exposure to infective stages. Also, T. retortaeformis hatched earlier than G. strigosum. These findings showed that seasonal changes in intensity, frequency, and duration of daily temperature are important causes of variability in egg hatching and larva survival. Overall, this study emphasizes the important role of climate warming and seasonality on the dynamics of free-living stages in soil-transmitted helminths and their contribution to enhance host exposure to parasitic infections. Yet, the ability to infect might ultimately depend on how hosts interact with parasites.

Evaluation of the effect of various concentrations of selected pyrethroids on the development of Dermacentor reticulatus eggs and larvae

The Palearctic three-host species Dermacentor reticulatus contributes to the circulation of numerous pathogens in the environment. Reduction of its abundance may therefore decrease the risk of tick-borne diseases in a given area. The aim of the study is to determine the effect of various concentrations of three pyrethroids--(D), cypermethrin (C), and alpha-cypermethrin (AC) on the development of D. reticulatus eggs and larvae. 217 engorged D. reticulatus females were examined in the investigations. After the feeding period, they were sprayed with 0.015625%, 0.03125%, 0.0625%, and 0.125% solutions of D, C, and AC, and kept at a temperature of 25 o C and 90% relative humidity throughout the preoviposition and oviposition periods. Eggs laid by females were kept in the same conditions until larval hatch. Based on the results obtained, parameters of the course of maturation and oviposition, as well as parameters of embryonic development, were determined. The investigations showed that the pyrethroids tested prolonged the egg maturation period, reduced the number and weight of eggs, and caused disturbances in embryogenesis in D. reticulatus. Upon treatment with as little as 0.015625% AC, larvae did not develop and all eggs died 1-2 days after oviposition. C led to a decreased percentage of normal larval hatch--31.96%, 15.51% and 12.5%, respectively, after using three increasing concentrations (control 98.15%), and a high rate of egg and embryo mortality. The least detrimental effect on the D. reticulatus maturation and embryonic periods was exerted by deltamethrin (82.74%, 84.37% and 16.80% of normal larvae in treatment with the three concentrations). Morphological anomalies were observed in larvae during the experimental period. AC appeared to have the most toxic effect during the maturity and egg development periods, while C exhibited lower toxicity. Application of these pyrethroids in engorged D. reticulatus females exerts distant effects that lead to substantial reduction of tick offspring abundance.

Organic parasite control for poultry and rabbits in British Columbia, Canada

Plants used for treating endo- and ectoparasites of rabbits and poultry in British Columbia included Arctium lappa (burdock), Artemisia sp. (wormwood), Chenopodium album (lambsquarters) and C. ambrosioides (epazote), Cirsium arvense (Canada thistle), Juniperus spp. (juniper), Mentha piperita (peppermint), Nicotiana sp. (tobacco), Papaver somniferum (opium poppy), Rubus spp. (blackberry and raspberry relatives), Symphytum officinale (comfrey), Taraxacum officinale (common dandelion), Thuja plicata (western redcedar) and Urtica dioica (stinging nettle).

Secretory process of salivary glands of female Amblyomma cajennense (Acari: Ixodidae) ticks fed on resistant rabbits

Ticks have great economic and health importance since infested animals have reduced milk and meat production, and, besides that, they are expensive ectoparasites to control. While feeding, ticks can transmit to their hosts a large amount of pathogens, including Rickettsia rickettsii responsible for the "spotted fever" or "fever of the mountains." It is known that animals infested with ticks or artificially immunized with their salivary gland extracts develop resistance, which is related to a decrease in engorged female weight, in egg-laying by adults, in egg viability and, in some cases, in the capacity of pathogens transmission. The present study aimed to examine morpho-histochemically the female salivary glands of semi and engorged Amblyomma cajennense fed on resistant rabbits. The results revealed that acinus I had no changes when compared to that of females fed on naive rabbits. The c cells of acinus II showed signs of early degeneration, which may result in feeding efficiency decrease. In acinus III d cells, activity time was longer. Such occurrence was associated with the time of female fixation, which increased in females fed on resistant hosts.

Eimeria species in wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) in Fars province, Iran

This investigation was accomplished during February to November 2008. A total of 71 wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) of about 5 to 12 months age were collected alive from different parts of Fars province, south of Iran. Faecal sampling was carried out directly from recti and the oocysts were isolated using sedimentation and floatation techniques and the sporulated oocyst were identified based on morphological and biological characteristics. All the rabbits were apparently healthy and showed no clinical symptoms. Twenty two rabbits (31.0%) were positive for infection with Eimeria and six species including Eimeria perforans (18.3%), Eimeria magna (16.9%), Eimeria media (14.1), Eimeria irresidua (11.2%), Eimeria flavescens (4.2%), and Eimeria coecicola (2.8%) were identified. Eighty six percent of the infected rabbits showed mixed infections with two or three Eimeria species. Lack of clinical signs could be due to the agro ecological and environmental conditions of rabbit habitats specifically dry and hot climatic features in recent years. In addition, immunity induced by long term exposure to low doses of oocysts shedded by the carrier animals probably have pivotal role in impairing parasitic developmental cycles and preventing acute coccidiosis.

Prevalence, infectivity and oocyst sporulation time of rabbit-coccidia in Taiwan

Prevalence of Eimeria species parasitizing rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) in Taiwan were investigated. Six Eimeria species, namely: Eimeria media (prevalence, 158/642; 24.6%), Eimeria magna (101/642; 15.7%), Eimeria perforans (58/642; 9.0%), Eimeria coecicola (46/642; 7.2%), Eimeria piriformis (16/642; 2.5%), and Eimeria exigua (9/642; 1.4%) were observed. The overall prevalence of these coccidial infections in rabbits from pet shops and farms was 46.2% and 41.7%, respectively. Concurrent infections involving 2 or 3 species were often observed, while quadruple-infection was rare. Significant differences (p < 0.005) in prevalence were observed between the adult and juvenile rabbits. The minimum time required for oocyst sporulation of E. media, E. piriformis, E. magna, E. perforans, E. exigua, E. coecicola were 10, 20, 32, 12, 16, and 36 hr, respectively. This is the first report on the prevalence of Eimeria intestinal infection in commercial domestic rabbits in Taiwan. We demonstrated that these rabbit-infecting Eimeria species have high biopotential in that the ingestion of a single sporulated oocyst could successfully produce patent infection in a rabbit. In addition, they also possess high host specificity in that they could not infect mice, golden hamsters, Mongolian gerbils, rats, and guinea pigs.

Beyond splitting hares and rabbiting on about major histocompatibility complex complexity

The genes of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) have become the target of choice for studies wishing to examine adaptively important genetic diversity in natural populations. Within Molecular Ecology alone, there have been 71 papers on aspects of MHC evolution over the past few years, with an increasing year on year trend. This focus on the MHC is partly driven by the hypothesized links between MHC gene dynamics and ecologically interesting and relevant traits, such as mate choice and host–parasite interactions. However, an ability to pin down the evolutionary causes and ecological consequences of MHC variation in natural populations has proven challenging and has been hampered by the very issue that is attractive about MHC genes – their high levels of diversity. Linking high levels of MHC diversity to ecological factors in inherently complex natural populations requires a level of experimental design and analytical rigour that is extremely difficult to achieve owing to a plethora of potentially confounding and interacting variables. In this issue of Molecular Ecology, Smith et al. (2010) elegantly overcome the challenge of detecting complex interactions in complex systems by using an intricate analytical approach to demonstrate a role for MHC in the reproductive ability of a natural population of the European hare Lepus europaeus (Fig. 1). Also in this issue, Oppelt et al. (2010) demonstrate a role for MHC variation in determining levels of hepatic coccidian infection in the European rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus (Fig. 2).

An accidental but safe and effective use of Lucilia cuprina (Diptera: Calliphoridae) in maggot debridement therapy in Alexandria, Egypt

The calliphorid fly, Lucilia cuprina (Wiedemann), is known to cause serious malign myiasis in animals, whereas its sibling species Lucilia sericata (Meigen) is commonly a carrion breeder and is used in maggot debridement therapy (MDT). The current study reports an accidental involvement of L. cuprina in MDT in Alexandria, Egypt, that has proved to be safe and effective. In November 2008, the laboratory colonies of L. sericata (the species regularly used in MDT) at the Faculty of Science, Alexandria University were renewed by Lucilia flies collected as third instar larvae on exposed rabbit carcasses. Flies from the new colonies were successfully used to heal the diabetic foot wounds of two patients at Alexandria Main University Hospital. Analysis of DNA sequences and adult and larval morphology then revealed that these flies were and still are L. cuprina. Breeding of this species in carrion in Alexandria is a new record. Despite the safety of this strain of L. cuprina in MDT, entomologists rearing blow flies for the purpose of wound debridement should regularly maintain high quality assurance of their species' identity to avoid possible clinical complications that may result from the introduction of an unexpected and invasive species to their laboratory colonies.

[Helminths of some laboratory animals detected by necropsy and fecal examination]

A study was performed in order to determine helminths of laboratory animals. Fecal specimens obtained from 110 mice, 263 rats and 65 rabbits were investigated and 37 rats and 7 rabbits were necropsied. In general, 83.8% rats were found to be infected by necropsy, while 100% of mice,and 81.8% of rats were found to be infected with one or more helminths species by fecal examination. No rabbits were found to be infected by necropsy or fecal examination. In fecal examination of mice and rats, the prevalence of helminths was detected as follows: Syphacia muris, 100%; Aspicularis tetraptera, 53.6%; Syphacia obvelata, 46.4%; and Hymenolepis diminuta 17.9% in mice. The prevalence in rats was H. Diminuta, 62.5%; S. muris, 25%; Hymenolepis nana, 6.8%; and Trichosomoides crassicauda, 6.8%. In necropsy, S. muris was identified in all of infected rats, but only one was infected with A. tetraptera.

Comparison of efficacy of ivermectin and doramectin against mange mite (Sarcoptes scabiei) in naturally infested rabbits in Turkey

The authors used 14 New Zealand rabbits (5 naturally infested rabbits and 9 in-contact rabbits) for Sarcoptes scabiei treatment in this study. Signs, such as itchy ears, eyes, tail and abdominal skin, alopecia and pyoderma, were considered to be the cause of these disorders. Infested rabbits were grouped according to the intensity of S. scabiei infestation (low, medium and high). Each group was then divided into two subgroups; in one subgroup the rabbits received ivermectin (1%) and, in the other, doramectin (1%). All subgroups received a subcutaneous injection at a dosage of 400 microg/kg body weight every 80 h on three occasions. On day 28 after commencing the treatment, all the rabbits in the first two groups had recovered completely. Although both drugs were applied at the same time and at the same dose, the third group (high degree of infestation), revealed, both microscopically and macroscopically, that ivermectin has more rapid effect than doramectin. Treatment was effective in all groups.

On Dipetalonema manson-bahri n.sp., from the Spring-hare, Pedetes surdaster larvalis, with a Note on its Development in Fleas

1. The morphology of the adult worms and the microfilariae are described of a new species of filarial worm, Dipetalonema manson-bahri.

2. Dehpsylla crassipes Jordon, 192G, a flea specific to Pedetes surdasler, was found in nature to contain infective larvae which are believed to be those of D. manson-bahri.

3. In the laboratory full development of D. manson-bahri was observed in Ctenocephalides felis and Xenopsylla cheopis.

European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) are naturally infected with different Trypanosoma cruzi genotypes

Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiologic agent of Chagas disease, presents a complex life cycle, cycling between reduviid vectors and wild and domestic mammals. The European rabbit is an introduced species in America, but its role as reservoir in the wild transmission cycle of Chagas disease remains unknown. We used polymerase chain reaction, Southern blot, and hybridization tests to detect infection and characterize genotypes in rabbits from a hyperendemic area of Chagas disease in Chile. Results show 38% of infection with different genotypes. We provide evidence that rabbits are naturally infected with T. cruzi, which may have important epidemiologic consequences for the wild transmission cycle.

[Dynamics of endoparasite infections in rabbits at different rearing regimes]

This study was intended to evaluate the occurrence and seasonality of infection of coccidian and helminth parasites, in three rabbit warrens differently managed. Mothers stayed with their offspring on deep litter (farm A, 90 dams), in boxes cleaned weekly (farm B, 30 dams) or on slatted floor (farm C, 10 females), whereas all the young after weaning (1 to 5 months of age) were kept in cages with slatted floor. Animals were fed a complete balanced pelleted feed (warrens A and B) or traditional forage (herd C). Antiparasitic treatment involved coccidiostatic drugs. Robenidine (alternately with Lerbec in farm A) was added to food in the first two farms, whilst Sulfatyf mixed with water was given once after weaning in farm C. A total of 203 individual faecal samples from females of breeding stock, and 133 pooled samples from young animals, were collected on an annual cycle during 2007-2008 (February-January), and analyzed according to a modified concentration McMaster method. Coccidians were identified based on sporulated oocysts. A number of coccidian species (Eimeria perforans, E. media, E. magna, E. irresidua, E. exiqua, E. coecicola, and E. piriformis) were observed in all farms. The most pathogenic species--E. intestinalis was found both in farm A and B, whereas E. flavescens and E. stiedae--only in the former. The level of infection was high, especially in young rabbits, with the prevalence of 94.9 to 100% and mean intensity from 11,161 to 28,871 oocysts per 1 g of faeces (OPG) in a particular warren. The highest intensity of infection was observed in May, when the mean output increased to 29,454, 56,952, and 23,815 OPG in warrens A, B, and C, respectively. A nematode, Passalurus ambiguus, was detected in all searched farms, with the prevalence from 14.1% to 27.5%, depending on a farm. The species was more often seen in the first part of year. The other helminths (Trichostrongylus retortaeformis, Graphidium strigosum, and Trichuris leporis) were found only in rabbits of warren C. In this warren, the forage of farm origin was suggested to be prepared in a proper way in order to protect it from nematode transmission. The presence of coccidia and their specific composition has been continuously monitored in all farms, to estimate the efficiency of prophylactic measures undertaken.

[Efficacy of the pyrethroid permethrin on the control of Psoroptes ovis (Hering, 1838) (Acari:Psoroptidae) in naturally infested rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus)]

The goal of the present study was to evaluate the efficacy of a spray formulation containing 2% of the pyrethroid permethrin on the control of Psoroptes ovis in naturally infested rabbits. Ten rabbits, presenting clinical signs of psoroptic mange in both ear canals. The animals were divided into two groups of five: control, without treatment (GI) and a second group (GII) treated with a single application of 2% permethrin. The diagnosis was realized by collecting fragments of crusts from both ear canals and submitting to stereomicroscopy for the presence and evaluation of mites' motility. On day 0 the animals from GII were treated topically with 2mg of 2% permethrin in each ear canal. No other treatment or environmental decontamination was performed during the trial. The rabbits were evaluated daily for observation of possible side effects. To evaluate the efficacy, collections of material were undertaken on days: +7, +14, +21. The formulation containing 2% permethrin was 100% effective in the control of P. ovis in naturally infested rabbits, along all days of observation. No adverse reactions were observed in the treated animals.

Morphological changes in the salivary glands of Amblyomma cajennense females (Acari: Ixodidae) in different feeding stages on rabbits at first infestation

This study examined salivary glands of unfed, partially engorged, and engorged females of the tick Amblyomma cajennense on rabbits at first infestation using histological and histochemical techniques. In type I acini, no significant changes were observed among the three feeding conditions. In type II acini of unfed females, c1, c2, and c4 cells were described for the first time in this species. In a comparison among the three feeding conditions, an increase in this acinus was observed, due to the increase in secretion in c1, c2, and c4 cells and the appearance of c3 cells. In engorged females, some cells were still active. Type III acini presented cells d, e, and f containing secretion in unfed females. In partially engorged females, these cells were devoid of secretion. In engorged females, type III acini exhibited a reduced lumen. After engorgement, all acini underwent a degenerative process, as observed in females after two to five days post-engorgement.