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Abstract
Mpox is caused by the mpox virus, which belongs to the Orthopoxvirus genus and Poxviridae family. Animal hosts, such as African rodents, mice, prairie dogs, and non-human primates, play important roles in the development and transmission of outbreaks. Laboratory animal infection experiments have demonstrated that some animals are susceptible to mpox virus. This review summarizes the current progress on the animal hosts for mpox virus. The surveillance of mpox virus in animal hosts will provide important insights into virus tracing, analysis of mutation evolutionary patterns, transmission mechanisms, and development of control measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kangxin Li
- Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong First Medical University, Jinan, Shandong, China
- Department of Pathogen Biology, School of Clinical and Basic Medical Sciences, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, Shandong, China
- Medical Science and Technology Innovation Center, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Yupei Yuan
- Department of Pathogen Biology, School of Clinical and Basic Medical Sciences, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Lu Jiang
- Department of Pathogen Biology, School of Clinical and Basic Medical Sciences, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Yuwen Liu
- Department of Pathogen Biology, School of Clinical and Basic Medical Sciences, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Yihan Liu
- Department of Pathogen Biology, School of Clinical and Basic Medical Sciences, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Leiliang Zhang
- Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong First Medical University, Jinan, Shandong, China
- Department of Pathogen Biology, School of Clinical and Basic Medical Sciences, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, Shandong, China
- Medical Science and Technology Innovation Center, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, Shandong, China
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Butler MD, Griffin K, Brewster CD, Kapuscinski ML, Stenglein MD, Tripp DW, Quackenbush SL, Fox KA. A Novel Retrovirus (Gunnison's Prairie Dog Retrovirus) Associated With Thymic Lymphoma in Gunnison's Prairie Dogs in Colorado, USA. Viruses 2020; 12:E606. [PMID: 32498297 PMCID: PMC7354474 DOI: 10.3390/v12060606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2020] [Revised: 05/25/2020] [Accepted: 05/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
As part of research and wildlife disease surveillance efforts, we performed necropsy examinations of 125 free-ranging (n = 114) and captive (n = 11) prairie dogs in Colorado from 2009 to 2017. From these cases, we identified three cases of thymic lymphoma in free-ranging Gunnison's prairie dogs (Cynomys gunnisoni), and we identified a novel retroviral sequence associated with these tumors. The viral sequence is 7700 nucleotides in length and exhibits a genetic organization that is consistent with the characteristics of a type D betaretrovirus. The proposed name of this virus is Gunnison's prairie dog retrovirus (GPDRV). We screened all 125 prairie dogs for the presence of GPDRV using PCR with envelope-specific primers and DNA extracted from spleen samples. Samples were from Gunnison's prairie dogs (n = 59), black-tailed prairie dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus) (n = 40), and white-tailed prairie dogs (Cynomys leucurus) (n = 26). We identified GPDRV in a total of 7/125 (5.6%) samples including all three of the prairie dogs with thymic lymphoma, as well as spleen from an additional four Gunnison's prairie dogs with no tumors recognized at necropsy. None of the GPDRV-negative Gunnison's prairie dogs had thymic lymphomas. We also identified a related, apparently endogenous retroviral sequence in all prairie dog samples. These results suggest that GPDRV infection may lead to development of thymic lymphoma in Gunnison's prairie dogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Molly D. Butler
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA; (M.D.B.); (C.D.B.); (M.L.K.); (M.D.S.)
| | - Karen Griffin
- Colorado Division of Parks and Wildlife, Wildlife Health Laboratory, Fort Collins, CO 80521, USA; (K.G.); (D.W.T.)
| | - Connie D. Brewster
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA; (M.D.B.); (C.D.B.); (M.L.K.); (M.D.S.)
| | - Marylee L. Kapuscinski
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA; (M.D.B.); (C.D.B.); (M.L.K.); (M.D.S.)
| | - Mark D. Stenglein
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA; (M.D.B.); (C.D.B.); (M.L.K.); (M.D.S.)
| | - Daniel W. Tripp
- Colorado Division of Parks and Wildlife, Wildlife Health Laboratory, Fort Collins, CO 80521, USA; (K.G.); (D.W.T.)
| | - Sandra L. Quackenbush
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA; (M.D.B.); (C.D.B.); (M.L.K.); (M.D.S.)
| | - Karen A. Fox
- Colorado Division of Parks and Wildlife, Wildlife Health Laboratory, Fort Collins, CO 80521, USA; (K.G.); (D.W.T.)
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Wang J, Li N, Li Z, Liu L, He Y, Meng J, Li S, Wang J. Identification of a novel bocaparvovirus in a wild squirrel in Kunming, Yunnan Province, China. Arch Virol 2020; 165:1469-1474. [PMID: 32388598 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-020-04613-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2020] [Accepted: 03/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
In December 2017, a squirrel (Callosciurus phayrei) died 2 days after capture in Kunming, and its intestinal tract, heart, liver, spleen, lung, and kidney were subjected to metagenomics analysis. Reassembly and verification by reverse transcription PCR of contigs generated by next-generation sequencing yielded a 5176-nt sequence, which was designated "squirrel bocaparvovirus" (SQBOV). Phylogenetic trees based on the aa sequences of NS1, NP1, and VP1 showed that SQBOV formed an independent branch in the bocaparvovirus phylogenetic tree. The amino acid sequence identity of the NS1 of SQBOV to those of other bocaparvoviruses was below the threshold of 85% that is used to demarcate species within the genus, indicating that it should be considered a member of a new bocaparvovirus species. To our knowledge, this is the first report of a bocaparvovirus in squirrels. Our findings will enable further studies of viral diversity in rodents and of the genetic diversity and host range of bocaparvoviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiali Wang
- Yunnan Province Hospital of Infection Disease, Kunming, 650301, Yunnan, China
| | - Nan Li
- Yunnan Tropical and Subtropical Animal Viral Disease Laboratory, Yunnan Animal Science and Veterinary Institute, Kunming, 650224, Yunnan, China
| | - Zhao Li
- The Agricultural Technology Service Center of Qu Shui Town, Jiangcheng County, Yunnan, 665907, China
| | - Lin Liu
- Center for Systems Medicine, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Suzhou Institute of Systems Medicine, Suzhou, 215123, China
| | - Yuwen He
- Yunnan Tropical and Subtropical Animal Viral Disease Laboratory, Yunnan Animal Science and Veterinary Institute, Kunming, 650224, Yunnan, China
| | - Jinxin Meng
- Yunnan Tropical and Subtropical Animal Viral Disease Laboratory, Yunnan Animal Science and Veterinary Institute, Kunming, 650224, Yunnan, China
| | - Shunxiang Li
- Yuxi Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Yixu, 653000, Yunnan, China.
| | - Jinglin Wang
- Yunnan Tropical and Subtropical Animal Viral Disease Laboratory, Yunnan Animal Science and Veterinary Institute, Kunming, 650224, Yunnan, China.
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Weiner ZP, Salzer JS, LeMasters E, Ellison JA, Kondas AV, Morgan CN, Doty JB, Martin BE, Satheshkumar PS, Olson VA, Hutson CL. Characterization of Monkeypox virus dissemination in the black-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus) through in vivo bioluminescent imaging. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0222612. [PMID: 31557167 PMCID: PMC6762066 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0222612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2019] [Accepted: 09/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Monkeypox virus (MPXV) is a member of the genus Orthopoxvirus, endemic in Central and West Africa. This viral zoonosis was introduced into the United States in 2003 via African rodents imported for the pet trade and caused 37 human cases, all linked to exposure to MPXV-infected black-tailed prairie dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus). Prairie dogs have since become a useful model of MPXV disease, utilized for testing of potential medical countermeasures. In this study, we used recombinant MPXV containing the firefly luciferase gene (luc) and in vivo imaging technology to characterize MPXV pathogenesis in the black-tailed prairie dog in real time. West African (WA) MPXV could be visualized using in vivo imaging in the nose, lymph nodes, intestines, heart, lung, kidneys, and liver as early as day 6 post infection (p.i.). By day 9 p.i., lesions became visible on the skin and in some cases in the spleen. After day 9 p.i., luminescent signal representing MPXV replication either increased, indicating a progression to what would be a fatal infection, or decreased as infection was resolved. Use of recombinant luc+ MPXV allowed for a greater understanding of how MPXV disseminates throughout the body in prairie dogs during the course of infection. This technology will be used to reduce the number of animals required in future pathogenesis studies as well as aid in determining the effectiveness of potential medical countermeasures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary P. Weiner
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United states of America
- Laboratory Leadership Service assigned to Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United states of America
| | - Johanna S. Salzer
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United states of America
| | - Elizabeth LeMasters
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United states of America
| | - James A. Ellison
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United states of America
| | - Ashley V. Kondas
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United states of America
| | - Clint N. Morgan
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United states of America
| | - Jeffery B. Doty
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United states of America
| | - Brock E. Martin
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United states of America
| | | | - Victoria A. Olson
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United states of America
| | - Christina L. Hutson
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United states of America
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Tappe D, Schlottau K, Cadar D, Hoffmann B, Balke L, Bewig B, Hoffmann D, Eisermann P, Fickenscher H, Krumbholz A, Laufs H, Huhndorf M, Rosenthal M, Schulz-Schaeffer W, Ismer G, Hotop SK, Brönstrup M, Ott A, Schmidt-Chanasit J, Beer M. Occupation-Associated Fatal Limbic Encephalitis Caused by Variegated Squirrel Bornavirus 1, Germany, 2013. Emerg Infect Dis 2019; 24:978-987. [PMID: 29774846 PMCID: PMC6004865 DOI: 10.3201/eid2406.172027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
This case underscores the risk for spillover infections to humans who work with exotic squirrels. Limbic encephalitis is commonly regarded as an autoimmune-mediated disease. However, after the recent detection of zoonotic variegated squirrel bornavirus 1 in a Prevost’s squirrel (Callosciurus prevostii) in a zoo in northern Germany, we retrospectively investigated a fatal case in an autoantibody-seronegative animal caretaker who had worked at that zoo. The virus had been discovered in 2015 as the cause of a cluster of cases of fatal encephalitis among breeders of variegated squirrels (Sciurus variegatoides) in eastern Germany. Molecular assays and immunohistochemistry detected a limbic distribution of the virus in brain tissue of the animal caretaker. Phylogenetic analyses demonstrated a spillover infection from the Prevost’s squirrel. Antibodies against bornaviruses were detected in the patient’s cerebrospinal fluid by immunofluorescence and newly developed ELISAs and immunoblot. The putative antigenic epitope was identified on the viral nucleoprotein. Other zoo workers were not infected; however, avoidance of direct contact with exotic squirrels and screening of squirrels are recommended.
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Forth LF, Konrath A, Klose K, Schlottau K, Hoffmann K, Ulrich RG, Höper D, Pohlmann A, Beer M. A Novel Squirrel Respirovirus with Putative Zoonotic Potential. Viruses 2018; 10:v10070373. [PMID: 30021939 PMCID: PMC6070802 DOI: 10.3390/v10070373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2018] [Revised: 07/14/2018] [Accepted: 07/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
In a globalized world, the threat of emerging pathogens plays an increasing role, especially if their zoonotic potential is unknown. In this study, a novel respirovirus, family Paramyxoviridae, was isolated from a Sri Lankan Giant squirrel (Ratufa macroura), which originated in Sri Lanka and deceased with severe pneumonia in a German zoo. The full-genome characterization of this novel virus, tentatively named Giant squirrel respirovirus (GSqRV), revealed similarities to murine (71%), as well as human respiroviruses (68%) with unique features, for example, a different genome length and a putative additional accessory protein. Congruently, phylogenetic analyses showed a solitary position of GSqRV between known murine and human respiroviruses, implicating a putative zoonotic potential. A tailored real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) for specific detection of GSqRV confirmed a very high viral load in the lung, and, to a lesser extent, in the brain of the deceased animal. A pilot study on indigenous and exotic squirrels did not reveal additional cases in Germany. Therefore, further research is essential to assess the geographic distribution, host range, and zoonotic potential of this novel viral pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonie F Forth
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
| | - Andrea Konrath
- Saxon State Laboratory of Health and Veterinary Affairs, Bahnhofstraße 58-60, 04158 Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Kristin Klose
- Institute of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, An den Tierkliniken 33, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Kore Schlottau
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
| | - Kathrin Hoffmann
- Saxon State Laboratory of Health and Veterinary Affairs, Jägerstraße 8/10, 01099 Dresden, Germany.
| | - Rainer G Ulrich
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
| | - Dirk Höper
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
| | - Anne Pohlmann
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
| | - Martin Beer
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
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Wibbelt G, Tausch SH, Dabrowski PW, Kershaw O, Nitsche A, Schrick L. Berlin Squirrelpox Virus, a New Poxvirus in Red Squirrels, Berlin, Germany. Emerg Infect Dis 2018; 23:1726-1729. [PMID: 28930029 PMCID: PMC5621524 DOI: 10.3201/eid2310.171008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Near Berlin, Germany, several juvenile red squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris) were found with moist, crusty skin lesions. Histology, electron microscopy, and cell culture isolation revealed an orthopoxvirus-like infection. Subsequent PCR and genome analysis identified a new poxvirus (Berlin squirrelpox virus) that could not be assigned to any known poxvirus genera.
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Schlottau K, Jenckel M, van den Brand J, Fast C, Herden C, Höper D, Homeier-Bachmann T, Thielebein J, Mensing N, Diender B, Hoffmann D, Ulrich RG, Mettenleiter TC, Koopmans M, Tappe D, Schmidt-Chanasit J, Reusken CBEM, Beer M, Hoffmann B. Variegated Squirrel Bornavirus 1 in Squirrels, Germany and the Netherlands. Emerg Infect Dis 2018; 23:477-481. [PMID: 28221112 PMCID: PMC5382762 DOI: 10.3201/eid2303.161061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
We screened squirrels in Germany and the Netherlands for the novel zoonotic variegated squirrel bornavirus 1 (VSBV-1). The detection of VSBV-1 in 11 squirrels indicates a considerable risk for transmission to humans handling those animals. Therefore, squirrels in contact with humans should routinely be tested for VSBV-1.
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Doty JB, Malekani JM, Kalemba LN, Stanley WT, Monroe BP, Nakazawa YU, Mauldin MR, Bakambana TL, Liyandja Dja Liyandja T, Braden ZH, Wallace RM, Malekani DV, McCollum AM, Gallardo-Romero N, Kondas A, Peterson AT, Osorio JE, Rocke TE, Karem KL, Emerson GL, Carroll DS. Assessing Monkeypox Virus Prevalence in Small Mammals at the Human-Animal Interface in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Viruses 2017; 9:E283. [PMID: 28972544 PMCID: PMC5691634 DOI: 10.3390/v9100283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2017] [Revised: 09/15/2017] [Accepted: 09/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
During 2012, 2013 and 2015, we collected small mammals within 25 km of the town of Boende in Tshuapa Province, the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The prevalence of monkeypox virus (MPXV) in this area is unknown; however, cases of human infection were previously confirmed near these collection sites. Samples were collected from 353 mammals (rodents, shrews, pangolins, elephant shrews, a potamogale, and a hyrax). Some rodents and shrews were captured from houses where human monkeypox cases have recently been identified, but most were trapped in forests and agricultural areas near villages. Real-time PCR and ELISA were used to assess evidence of MPXV infection and other Orthopoxvirus (OPXV) infections in these small mammals. Seven (2.0%) of these animal samples were found to be anti-orthopoxvirus immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibody positive (six rodents: two Funisciurus spp.; one Graphiurus lorraineus; one Cricetomys emini; one Heliosciurus sp.; one Oenomys hypoxanthus, and one elephant shrew Petrodromus tetradactylus); no individuals were found positive in PCR-based assays. These results suggest that a variety of animals can be infected with OPXVs, and that epidemiology studies and educational campaigns should focus on animals that people are regularly contacting, including larger rodents used as protein sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey B Doty
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, 1600 Clifton Rd. NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Jean M Malekani
- University of Kinshasa, Department of Biology, P.O. Box 218 Kinshasa XI, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
| | - Lem's N Kalemba
- University of Kinshasa, Department of Biology, P.O. Box 218 Kinshasa XI, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
| | - William T Stanley
- Field Museum of Natural History, 1400 S. Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, IL 60605, USA.
| | - Benjamin P Monroe
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, 1600 Clifton Rd. NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Yoshinori U Nakazawa
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, 1600 Clifton Rd. NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Matthew R Mauldin
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, 1600 Clifton Rd. NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Trésor L Bakambana
- University of Kinshasa, Department of Biology, P.O. Box 218 Kinshasa XI, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
| | | | - Zachary H Braden
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, 1600 Clifton Rd. NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Ryan M Wallace
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, 1600 Clifton Rd. NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Divin V Malekani
- University of Kinshasa, Department of Biology, P.O. Box 218 Kinshasa XI, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
| | - Andrea M McCollum
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, 1600 Clifton Rd. NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Nadia Gallardo-Romero
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, 1600 Clifton Rd. NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Ashley Kondas
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, 1600 Clifton Rd. NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - A Townsend Peterson
- Biodiversity Institute, University of Kansas, 1345 Jayhawk Blvd., Lawrence, KS 66045, USA.
| | - Jorge E Osorio
- University of Wisconsin, School of Veterinary Medicine, 2015 Linden Dr., Madison, WI 53706, USA.
| | - Tonie E Rocke
- U.S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, 6006 Schroeder Rd., Madison, WI 53711, USA.
| | - Kevin L Karem
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, 1600 Clifton Rd. NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Ginny L Emerson
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, 1600 Clifton Rd. NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Darin S Carroll
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, 1600 Clifton Rd. NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
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Falendysz EA, Lopera JG, Doty JB, Nakazawa Y, Crill C, Lorenzsonn F, Kalemba LN, Ronderos MD, Mejia A, Malekani JM, Karem K, Carroll DS, Osorio JE, Rocke TE. Characterization of Monkeypox virus infection in African rope squirrels (Funisciurus sp.). PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2017; 11:e0005809. [PMID: 28827792 PMCID: PMC5578676 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2017] [Revised: 08/31/2017] [Accepted: 07/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Monkeypox (MPX) is a zoonotic disease endemic in Central and West Africa and is caused by Monkeypox virus (MPXV), the most virulent Orthopoxvirus affecting humans since the eradication of Variola virus (VARV). Many aspects of the MPXV transmission cycle, including the natural host of the virus, remain unknown. African rope squirrels (Funisciurus spp.) are considered potential reservoirs of MPXV, as serosurveillance data in Central Africa has confirmed the circulation of the virus in these rodent species [1,2]. In order to understand the tissue tropism and clinical signs associated with infection with MPXV in these species, wild-caught rope squirrels were experimentally infected via intranasal and intradermal exposure with a recombinant MPXV strain from Central Africa engineered to express the luciferase gene. After infection, we monitored viral replication and shedding via in vivo bioluminescent imaging, viral culture and real time PCR. MPXV infection in African rope squirrels caused mortality and moderate to severe morbidity, with clinical signs including pox lesions in the skin, eyes, mouth and nose, dyspnea, and profuse nasal discharge. Both intranasal and intradermal exposures induced high levels of viremia, fast systemic spread, and long periods of viral shedding. Shedding and luminescence peaked at day 6 post infection and was still detectable after 15 days. Interestingly, one sentinel animal, housed in the same room but in a separate cage, also developed severe MPX disease and was euthanized. This study indicates that MPXV causes significant pathology in African rope squirrels and infected rope squirrels shed large quantities of virus, supporting their role as a potential source of MPXV transmission to humans and other animals in endemic MPX regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth A. Falendysz
- US Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Juan G. Lopera
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Jeffrey B. Doty
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Yoshinori Nakazawa
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Colleen Crill
- US Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Faye Lorenzsonn
- US Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | | | - Monica D. Ronderos
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Andres Mejia
- Animal Services (Pathology), Wisconsin National Primate Research Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | | | - Kevin Karem
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Darin S. Carroll
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Jorge E. Osorio
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Tonie E. Rocke
- US Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
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Hutson CL, Carroll DS, Gallardo-Romero N, Drew C, Zaki SR, Nagy T, Hughes C, Olson VA, Sanders J, Patel N, Smith SK, Keckler MS, Karem K, Damon IK. Comparison of Monkeypox Virus Clade Kinetics and Pathology within the Prairie Dog Animal Model Using a Serial Sacrifice Study Design. Biomed Res Int 2015; 2015:965710. [PMID: 26380309 PMCID: PMC4561332 DOI: 10.1155/2015/965710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2015] [Accepted: 06/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Monkeypox virus (MPXV) infection of the prairie dog is valuable to studying systemic orthopoxvirus disease. To further characterize differences in MPXV clade pathogenesis, groups of prairie dogs were intranasally infected (8 × 10(3) p.f.u.) with Congo Basin (CB) or West African (WA) MPXV, and 28 tissues were harvested on days 2, 4, 6, 9, 12, 17, and 24 postinfection. Samples were evaluated for the presence of virus and gross and microscopic lesions. Virus was recovered from nasal mucosa, oropharyngeal lymph nodes, and spleen earlier in CB challenged animals (day 4) than WA challenged animals (day 6). For both groups, primary viremia (indicated by viral DNA) was seen on days 6-9 through day 17. CB MPXV spread more rapidly, accumulated to greater levels, and caused greater morbidity in animals compared to WA MPXV. Histopathology and immunohistochemistry (IHC) findings, however, were similar. Two animals that succumbed to disease demonstrated abundant viral antigen in all organs tested, except for brain. Dual-IHC staining of select liver and spleen sections showed that apoptotic cells (identified by TUNEL) tended to colocalize with poxvirus antigen. Interestingly splenocytes were labelled positive for apoptosis more often than hepatocytes in both MPXV groups. These findings allow for further characterization of differences between MPXV clade pathogenesis, including identifying sites that are important during early viral replication and cellular response to viral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina L. Hutson
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
- Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Darin S. Carroll
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
| | - Nadia Gallardo-Romero
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
| | - Clifton Drew
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
| | - Sherif R. Zaki
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
| | - Tamas Nagy
- Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Christine Hughes
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
| | - Victoria A. Olson
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
| | - Jeanine Sanders
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
| | - Nishi Patel
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
| | - Scott K. Smith
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
| | - M. Shannon Keckler
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
| | - Kevin Karem
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
| | - Inger K. Damon
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
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Nolen LD, Osadebe L, Katomba J, Likofata J, Mukadi D, Monroe B, Doty J, Kalemba L, Malekani J, Kabamba J, Bomponda PL, Lokota JI, Balilo MP, Likafi T, Lushima RS, Tamfum JJM, Okitolonda EW, McCollum AM, Reynolds MG. Introduction of Monkeypox into a Community and Household: Risk Factors and Zoonotic Reservoirs in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2015; 93:410-5. [PMID: 26013374 PMCID: PMC4530773 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.15-0168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2015] [Accepted: 04/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
An increased incidence of monkeypox (MPX) infections in the Democratic Republic of the Congo was noted by the regional surveillance system in October 2013. Little information exists regarding how MPX is introduced into the community and the factors associated with transmission within the household. Sixty-eight wild animals were collected and tested for Orthopoxvirus. Two of three rope squirrels (Funisciurus sp.) were positive for antibodies to Orthopoxviruses; however, no increased risk was associated with the consumption or preparation of rope squirrels. A retrospective cohort investigation and a case-control investigation were performed to identify risk factors affecting the introduction of monkeypox virus (MPXV) into the community and transmission within the home. School-age males were the individuals most frequently identified as the first person infected in the household and were the group most frequently affected overall. Risk factors of acquiring MPXV in a household included sleeping in the same room or bed, or using the same plate or cup as the primary case. There was no significant risk associated with eating or processing of wild animals. Activities associated with an increased risk of MPXV transmission all have potential for virus exposure to the mucosa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leisha Diane Nolen
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Bacterial Special Pathogens Branch, Atlanta, Georgia; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Epidemic Intelligence Service, Atlanta, Georgia; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Atlanta, Georgia; Minstere de la Santé, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Field Epidemiology Training Program, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; National Institute for Biomedical Research, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; University of Kinshasa, Department of Biology, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; Minstere de la Santé, Tshuapa Health District, The Democratic Republic of Congo; Kinshasa School of Public Health, The Democratic Republic of Congo
| | - Lynda Osadebe
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Bacterial Special Pathogens Branch, Atlanta, Georgia; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Epidemic Intelligence Service, Atlanta, Georgia; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Atlanta, Georgia; Minstere de la Santé, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Field Epidemiology Training Program, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; National Institute for Biomedical Research, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; University of Kinshasa, Department of Biology, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; Minstere de la Santé, Tshuapa Health District, The Democratic Republic of Congo; Kinshasa School of Public Health, The Democratic Republic of Congo
| | - Jacques Katomba
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Bacterial Special Pathogens Branch, Atlanta, Georgia; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Epidemic Intelligence Service, Atlanta, Georgia; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Atlanta, Georgia; Minstere de la Santé, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Field Epidemiology Training Program, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; National Institute for Biomedical Research, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; University of Kinshasa, Department of Biology, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; Minstere de la Santé, Tshuapa Health District, The Democratic Republic of Congo; Kinshasa School of Public Health, The Democratic Republic of Congo
| | - Jacques Likofata
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Bacterial Special Pathogens Branch, Atlanta, Georgia; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Epidemic Intelligence Service, Atlanta, Georgia; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Atlanta, Georgia; Minstere de la Santé, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Field Epidemiology Training Program, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; National Institute for Biomedical Research, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; University of Kinshasa, Department of Biology, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; Minstere de la Santé, Tshuapa Health District, The Democratic Republic of Congo; Kinshasa School of Public Health, The Democratic Republic of Congo
| | - Daniel Mukadi
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Bacterial Special Pathogens Branch, Atlanta, Georgia; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Epidemic Intelligence Service, Atlanta, Georgia; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Atlanta, Georgia; Minstere de la Santé, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Field Epidemiology Training Program, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; National Institute for Biomedical Research, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; University of Kinshasa, Department of Biology, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; Minstere de la Santé, Tshuapa Health District, The Democratic Republic of Congo; Kinshasa School of Public Health, The Democratic Republic of Congo
| | - Benjamin Monroe
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Bacterial Special Pathogens Branch, Atlanta, Georgia; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Epidemic Intelligence Service, Atlanta, Georgia; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Atlanta, Georgia; Minstere de la Santé, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Field Epidemiology Training Program, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; National Institute for Biomedical Research, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; University of Kinshasa, Department of Biology, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; Minstere de la Santé, Tshuapa Health District, The Democratic Republic of Congo; Kinshasa School of Public Health, The Democratic Republic of Congo
| | - Jeffrey Doty
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Bacterial Special Pathogens Branch, Atlanta, Georgia; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Epidemic Intelligence Service, Atlanta, Georgia; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Atlanta, Georgia; Minstere de la Santé, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Field Epidemiology Training Program, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; National Institute for Biomedical Research, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; University of Kinshasa, Department of Biology, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; Minstere de la Santé, Tshuapa Health District, The Democratic Republic of Congo; Kinshasa School of Public Health, The Democratic Republic of Congo
| | - Lem's Kalemba
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Bacterial Special Pathogens Branch, Atlanta, Georgia; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Epidemic Intelligence Service, Atlanta, Georgia; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Atlanta, Georgia; Minstere de la Santé, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Field Epidemiology Training Program, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; National Institute for Biomedical Research, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; University of Kinshasa, Department of Biology, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; Minstere de la Santé, Tshuapa Health District, The Democratic Republic of Congo; Kinshasa School of Public Health, The Democratic Republic of Congo
| | - Jean Malekani
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Bacterial Special Pathogens Branch, Atlanta, Georgia; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Epidemic Intelligence Service, Atlanta, Georgia; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Atlanta, Georgia; Minstere de la Santé, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Field Epidemiology Training Program, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; National Institute for Biomedical Research, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; University of Kinshasa, Department of Biology, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; Minstere de la Santé, Tshuapa Health District, The Democratic Republic of Congo; Kinshasa School of Public Health, The Democratic Republic of Congo
| | - Joelle Kabamba
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Bacterial Special Pathogens Branch, Atlanta, Georgia; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Epidemic Intelligence Service, Atlanta, Georgia; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Atlanta, Georgia; Minstere de la Santé, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Field Epidemiology Training Program, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; National Institute for Biomedical Research, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; University of Kinshasa, Department of Biology, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; Minstere de la Santé, Tshuapa Health District, The Democratic Republic of Congo; Kinshasa School of Public Health, The Democratic Republic of Congo
| | - Pierre Lokwa Bomponda
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Bacterial Special Pathogens Branch, Atlanta, Georgia; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Epidemic Intelligence Service, Atlanta, Georgia; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Atlanta, Georgia; Minstere de la Santé, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Field Epidemiology Training Program, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; National Institute for Biomedical Research, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; University of Kinshasa, Department of Biology, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; Minstere de la Santé, Tshuapa Health District, The Democratic Republic of Congo; Kinshasa School of Public Health, The Democratic Republic of Congo
| | - Jules Inonga Lokota
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Bacterial Special Pathogens Branch, Atlanta, Georgia; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Epidemic Intelligence Service, Atlanta, Georgia; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Atlanta, Georgia; Minstere de la Santé, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Field Epidemiology Training Program, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; National Institute for Biomedical Research, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; University of Kinshasa, Department of Biology, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; Minstere de la Santé, Tshuapa Health District, The Democratic Republic of Congo; Kinshasa School of Public Health, The Democratic Republic of Congo
| | - Marcel Pie Balilo
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Bacterial Special Pathogens Branch, Atlanta, Georgia; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Epidemic Intelligence Service, Atlanta, Georgia; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Atlanta, Georgia; Minstere de la Santé, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Field Epidemiology Training Program, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; National Institute for Biomedical Research, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; University of Kinshasa, Department of Biology, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; Minstere de la Santé, Tshuapa Health District, The Democratic Republic of Congo; Kinshasa School of Public Health, The Democratic Republic of Congo
| | - Toutou Likafi
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Bacterial Special Pathogens Branch, Atlanta, Georgia; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Epidemic Intelligence Service, Atlanta, Georgia; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Atlanta, Georgia; Minstere de la Santé, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Field Epidemiology Training Program, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; National Institute for Biomedical Research, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; University of Kinshasa, Department of Biology, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; Minstere de la Santé, Tshuapa Health District, The Democratic Republic of Congo; Kinshasa School of Public Health, The Democratic Republic of Congo
| | - Robert Shongo Lushima
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Bacterial Special Pathogens Branch, Atlanta, Georgia; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Epidemic Intelligence Service, Atlanta, Georgia; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Atlanta, Georgia; Minstere de la Santé, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Field Epidemiology Training Program, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; National Institute for Biomedical Research, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; University of Kinshasa, Department of Biology, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; Minstere de la Santé, Tshuapa Health District, The Democratic Republic of Congo; Kinshasa School of Public Health, The Democratic Republic of Congo
| | - Jean-Jacques Muyembe Tamfum
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Bacterial Special Pathogens Branch, Atlanta, Georgia; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Epidemic Intelligence Service, Atlanta, Georgia; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Atlanta, Georgia; Minstere de la Santé, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Field Epidemiology Training Program, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; National Institute for Biomedical Research, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; University of Kinshasa, Department of Biology, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; Minstere de la Santé, Tshuapa Health District, The Democratic Republic of Congo; Kinshasa School of Public Health, The Democratic Republic of Congo
| | - Emile Wemakoy Okitolonda
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Bacterial Special Pathogens Branch, Atlanta, Georgia; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Epidemic Intelligence Service, Atlanta, Georgia; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Atlanta, Georgia; Minstere de la Santé, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Field Epidemiology Training Program, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; National Institute for Biomedical Research, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; University of Kinshasa, Department of Biology, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; Minstere de la Santé, Tshuapa Health District, The Democratic Republic of Congo; Kinshasa School of Public Health, The Democratic Republic of Congo
| | - Andrea M McCollum
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Bacterial Special Pathogens Branch, Atlanta, Georgia; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Epidemic Intelligence Service, Atlanta, Georgia; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Atlanta, Georgia; Minstere de la Santé, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Field Epidemiology Training Program, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; National Institute for Biomedical Research, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; University of Kinshasa, Department of Biology, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; Minstere de la Santé, Tshuapa Health District, The Democratic Republic of Congo; Kinshasa School of Public Health, The Democratic Republic of Congo
| | - Mary G Reynolds
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Bacterial Special Pathogens Branch, Atlanta, Georgia; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Epidemic Intelligence Service, Atlanta, Georgia; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Atlanta, Georgia; Minstere de la Santé, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Field Epidemiology Training Program, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; National Institute for Biomedical Research, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; University of Kinshasa, Department of Biology, Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo; Minstere de la Santé, Tshuapa Health District, The Democratic Republic of Congo; Kinshasa School of Public Health, The Democratic Republic of Congo
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15
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Hoffmann B, Tappe D, Höper D, Herden C, Boldt A, Mawrin C, Niederstraßer O, Müller T, Jenckel M, van der Grinten E, Lutter C, Abendroth B, Teifke JP, Cadar D, Schmidt-Chanasit J, Ulrich RG, Beer M. A Variegated Squirrel Bornavirus Associated with Fatal Human Encephalitis. N Engl J Med 2015; 373:154-62. [PMID: 26154788 DOI: 10.1056/nejmoa1415627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 172] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Between 2011 and 2013, three breeders of variegated squirrels (Sciurus variegatoides) had encephalitis with similar clinical signs and died 2 to 4 months after onset of the clinical symptoms. With the use of a metagenomic approach that incorporated next-generation sequencing and real-time reverse-transcriptase quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR), the presence of a previously unknown bornavirus was detected in a contact squirrel and in brain samples from the three patients. Phylogenetic analyses showed that this virus, tentatively named variegated squirrel 1 bornavirus (VSBV-1), forms a lineage separate from that of the known bornavirus species. (Funded by the Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture [Germany] and others.).
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernd Hoffmann
- From the Institute of Diagnostic Virology (B.H., D.H., M.J., B.A., M.B.), Department of Experimental Animal Facilities and Biorisk Management (J.P.T.), and Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases (R.G.U.), Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, World Health Organization Collaborating Center for Arbovirus and Hemorrhagic Fever Reference and Research, Hamburg (D.T., D.C., J.S.-C.), German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Hamburg-Lübeck-Borstel (D.T., D.C., J.S.-C.), Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Justus-Liebig-University Gießen, Gießen (C.H.), Department of Neurology, Bergmannstrost Hospital (A.B., O.N.), and Department of Neurology, University Hospital Halle (Saale) (T.M.), Halle (Saale), Institute of Neuropathology, Otto-von-Guericke Universität, Magdeburg (C.M.), State Institute for Consumer Protection of Saxony-Anhalt, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Stendal (E.v.d.G.), and Special Service for Veterinarian Affairs and Consumer Protection, Salzlandkreis, Bernburg (Saale) (C.L.) - all in Germany
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Klein TA, Kim HC, Chong ST, Kim JA, Lee SY, Kim WK, Nunn PV, Song JW. Hantaan virus surveillance targeting small mammals at nightmare range, a high elevation military training area, Gyeonggi Province, Republic of Korea. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0118483. [PMID: 25874643 PMCID: PMC4398386 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0118483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2014] [Accepted: 01/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Rodent-borne disease surveillance was conducted at Nightmare Range (NM-R), near the demilitarized zone in northeast Gyeonggi Province, Republic of Korea, to identify hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) risks for a mountainous high-elevation (500 m) military training site. Monthly surveys were conducted from January 2008-December 2009. A total of 1,720 small mammals were captured belonging to the Orders Rodentia [Families, Sciuridae (1 species) and Muridae (7 species)] and Soricomorpha [Family, Soricidae (1species)]. Apodemus agrarius, the primary reservoir for Hantaan virus (HTNV), accounted for 89.9% (1,546) of all small mammals captured, followed by Myodes regulus (4.0%), Crocidura lasiura (3.9%), Micromys minutus (1.4%), Mus musculus (0.3%), Microtus fortis (0.2%), Apodemus peninsulae (0.2%), Tamias sibiricus (0.1%), and Rattus norvegicus (<0.1%). Three species were antibody-positive (Ab+) for hantaviruses: A. agrarius (8.2%), M. minutus (4.2%), and C. lasiura (1.5%). HTNV specific RNA was detected in 93/127 Ab+ A. agrarius, while Imjin virus specific RNA was detected in 1/1 Ab+ C. lasiura. Overall, hantavirus Ab+ rates for A. agrarius increased with weight (age) and were significantly higher among males (10.9%) than females (5.1%) (P<0.0001). High A. agrarius gravid rates during the fall (August-September) were associated with peak numbers of HFRS cases in Korea that followed high gravid rates. From 79 RT-PCR positive A. agrarius, 12 HTNV RNA samples were sequenced and compared phylogenetically based on a 320 nt sequence from the GC glycoprotein-encoding M segment. These results demonstrate that the HTNV isolates from NM-R are distinctly separated from HTNV isolated from the People’s Republic of China. These studies provide for improved disease risk assessments that identify military activities, rodent HTNV rates, and other factors associated with the transmission of hantaviruses during field training exercises.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terry A. Klein
- Force Health Protection and Preventive Medicine, 65th Medical Brigade/US Army MEDDAC-Korea, Unit 15281, APO AP 96205–528, United States of America
| | - Heung-Chul Kim
- 5th Medical Detachment, 168 Multifunctional Medical Battalion, 65th Medical Brigade, Unit 15247, APO AP 96205–5247, United States of America
| | - Sung-Tae Chong
- 5th Medical Detachment, 168 Multifunctional Medical Battalion, 65th Medical Brigade, Unit 15247, APO AP 96205–5247, United States of America
| | - Jeong-Ah Kim
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine, Institute of Biomedical Science & Food Safety, Korea University, 126–1, 5-ga, Anam-dong, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 136–705, Republic of Korea
| | - Sook-Young Lee
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine, Institute of Biomedical Science & Food Safety, Korea University, 126–1, 5-ga, Anam-dong, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 136–705, Republic of Korea
| | - Won-Keun Kim
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine, Institute of Biomedical Science & Food Safety, Korea University, 126–1, 5-ga, Anam-dong, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 136–705, Republic of Korea
| | - Peter V. Nunn
- 5th Medical Detachment, 168 Multifunctional Medical Battalion, 65th Medical Brigade, Unit 15247, APO AP 96205–5247, United States of America
| | - Jin-Won Song
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine, Institute of Biomedical Science & Food Safety, Korea University, 126–1, 5-ga, Anam-dong, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 136–705, Republic of Korea
- * E-mail:
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17
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Collins LM, Warnock ND, Tosh DG, McInnes C, Everest D, Montgomery WI, Scantlebury M, Marks N, Dick JTA, Reid N. Squirrelpox virus: assessing prevalence, transmission and environmental degradation. PLoS One 2014; 9:e89521. [PMID: 24586845 PMCID: PMC3931809 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0089521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2013] [Accepted: 01/21/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Red squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris) declined in Great Britain and Ireland during the last century, due to habitat loss and the introduction of grey squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis), which competitively exclude the red squirrel and act as a reservoir for squirrelpox virus (SQPV). The disease is generally fatal to red squirrels and their ecological replacement by grey squirrels is up to 25 times faster where the virus is present. We aimed to determine: (1) the seropositivity and prevalence of SQPV DNA in the invasive and native species at a regional scale; (2) possible SQPV transmission routes; and, (3) virus degradation rates under differing environmental conditions. Grey (n = 208) and red (n = 40) squirrel blood and tissues were sampled. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) techniques established seropositivity and viral DNA presence, respectively. Overall 8% of squirrels sampled (both species combined) had evidence of SQPV DNA in their tissues and 22% were in possession of antibodies. SQPV prevalence in sampled red squirrels was 2.5%. Viral loads were typically low in grey squirrels by comparison to red squirrels. There was a trend for a greater number of positive samples in spring and summer than in winter. Possible transmission routes were identified through the presence of viral DNA in faeces (red squirrels only), urine and ectoparasites (both species). Virus degradation analyses suggested that, after 30 days of exposure to six combinations of environments, there were more intact virus particles in scabs kept in warm (25°C) and dry conditions than in cooler (5 and 15°C) or wet conditions. We conclude that SQPV is present at low prevalence in invasive grey squirrel populations with a lower prevalence in native red squirrels. Virus transmission could occur through urine especially during warm dry summer conditions but, more notably, via ectoparasites, which are shared by both species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa M. Collins
- Quercus, School of Biological Sciences, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland
- School of Biological Sciences, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland
- Institute for Global Food Security (IGFS), Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland
- School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Lincolnshire, England
| | - Neil D. Warnock
- Quercus, School of Biological Sciences, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland
- School of Biological Sciences, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland
| | - David G. Tosh
- Quercus, School of Biological Sciences, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland
| | - Colin McInnes
- Moredun Research Institute, Penicuik, Midlothian, Scotland
| | - David Everest
- Animal Health and Veterinary Laboratories Agency (AHVLA), Addlestone, Surrey, England
| | - W. Ian Montgomery
- Quercus, School of Biological Sciences, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland
- School of Biological Sciences, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland
| | - Mike Scantlebury
- School of Biological Sciences, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland
| | - Nikki Marks
- School of Biological Sciences, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland
| | - Jaimie T. A. Dick
- Quercus, School of Biological Sciences, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland
- School of Biological Sciences, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland
- Institute for Global Food Security (IGFS), Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland
| | - Neil Reid
- Quercus, School of Biological Sciences, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland
- * E-mail:
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18
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McGowan NE, Marks NJ, McInnes CJ, Deane D, Maule AG, Scantlebury M. Effects of parasitism and morphology on squirrelpox virus seroprevalence in grey squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis). PLoS One 2014; 9:e83106. [PMID: 24416155 PMCID: PMC3885396 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0083106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2013] [Accepted: 10/31/2013] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Invasive species have been cited as major causes of population extinctions in several animal and plant classes worldwide. The North American grey squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) has a major detrimental effect on native red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris) populations across Britain and Ireland, in part because it can be a reservoir host for the deadly squirrelpox virus (SQPV). Whilst various researchers have investigated the epizootiology of SQPV disease in grey squirrels and have modelled the consequent effects on red squirrel populations, less work has examined morphological and physiological characteristics that might make individual grey squirrels more susceptible to contracting SQPV. The current study investigated the putative relationships between morphology, parasitism, and SQPV exposure in grey squirrels. We found geographical, sex, and morphological differences in SQPV seroprevalence. In particular, larger animals, those with wide zygomatic arch widths (ZAW), males with large testes, and individuals with concurrent nematode and/or coccidial infections had an increased seroprevalence of SQPV. In addition, males with larger spleens, particularly those with narrow ZAW, were more likely to be exposed to SQPV. Overall these results show that there is variation in SQPV seroprevalence in grey squirrels and that, consequently, certain individual, or populations of, grey squirrels might be more responsible for transmitting SQPV to native red squirrel populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natasha E. McGowan
- School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, United Kingdom
| | - Nikki J. Marks
- School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, United Kingdom
| | - Colin J. McInnes
- Vaccines and Diagnostics, Moredun Research Institute, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - David Deane
- Vaccines and Diagnostics, Moredun Research Institute, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Aaron G. Maule
- School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, United Kingdom
| | - Michael Scantlebury
- School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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19
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Hayward P. Rare zoonoses in the USA. Lancet Infect Dis 2013; 13:740-741. [PMID: 24137717 DOI: 10.1016/s1473-3099(13)70233-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
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20
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Thomassen HA, Fuller T, Asefi-Najafabady S, Shiplacoff JAG, Mulembakani PM, Blumberg S, Johnston SC, Kisalu NK, Kinkela TL, Fair JN, Wolfe ND, Shongo RL, LeBreton M, Meyer H, Wright LL, Muyembe JJ, Buermann W, Okitolonda E, Hensley LE, Lloyd-Smith JO, Smith TB, Rimoin AW. Pathogen-host associations and predicted range shifts of human monkeypox in response to climate change in central Africa. PLoS One 2013; 8:e66071. [PMID: 23935820 PMCID: PMC3729955 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0066071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2012] [Accepted: 05/05/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Climate change is predicted to result in changes in the geographic ranges and local prevalence of infectious diseases, either through direct effects on the pathogen, or indirectly through range shifts in vector and reservoir species. To better understand the occurrence of monkeypox virus (MPXV), an emerging Orthopoxvirus in humans, under contemporary and future climate conditions, we used ecological niche modeling techniques in conjunction with climate and remote-sensing variables. We first created spatially explicit probability distributions of its candidate reservoir species in Africa's Congo Basin. Reservoir species distributions were subsequently used to model current and projected future distributions of human monkeypox (MPX). Results indicate that forest clearing and climate are significant driving factors of the transmission of MPX from wildlife to humans under current climate conditions. Models under contemporary climate conditions performed well, as indicated by high values for the area under the receiver operator curve (AUC), and tests on spatially randomly and non-randomly omitted test data. Future projections were made on IPCC 4(th) Assessment climate change scenarios for 2050 and 2080, ranging from more conservative to more aggressive, and representing the potential variation within which range shifts can be expected to occur. Future projections showed range shifts into regions where MPX has not been recorded previously. Increased suitability for MPX was predicted in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Models developed here are useful for identifying areas where environmental conditions may become more suitable for human MPX; targeting candidate reservoir species for future screening efforts; and prioritizing regions for future MPX surveillance efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henri A. Thomassen
- Center for Tropical Research, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- Department of Comparative Zoology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Trevon Fuller
- Center for Tropical Research, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Salvi Asefi-Najafabady
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, United States of America
- Institute of the Environment and Sustainability, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Julia A. G. Shiplacoff
- Center for Tropical Research, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | | | - Seth Blumberg
- Fogarty International Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Sara C. Johnston
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fredrick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Neville K. Kisalu
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | | | - Joseph N. Fair
- Global Viral Forecasting, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Nathan D. Wolfe
- Global Viral Forecasting, San Francisco, California, United States of America
- Stanford University, Program in Human Biology, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | | | - Matthew LeBreton
- Global Viral Forecasting, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Hermann Meyer
- Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology, Munich, Germany
| | - Linda L. Wright
- The Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Jean-Jacques Muyembe
- National Institute of Biomedical Research, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo
| | - Wolfgang Buermann
- Center for Tropical Research, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Emile Okitolonda
- Kinshasa School of Public Health, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo
| | - Lisa E. Hensley
- Medical Countermeasures Initiative, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
| | - James O. Lloyd-Smith
- Fogarty International Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Thomas B. Smith
- Center for Tropical Research, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Anne W. Rimoin
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
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Hutson CL, Gallardo-Romero N, Carroll DS, Clemmons C, Salzer JS, Nagy T, Hughes CM, Olson VA, Karem KL, Damon IK. Transmissibility of the monkeypox virus clades via respiratory transmission: investigation using the prairie dog-monkeypox virus challenge system. PLoS One 2013; 8:e55488. [PMID: 23408990 PMCID: PMC3567100 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0055488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2012] [Accepted: 12/27/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Monkeypox virus (MPXV) is endemic within Africa where it sporadically is reported to cause outbreaks of human disease. In 2003, an outbreak of human MPXV occurred in the US after the importation of infected African rodents. Since the eradication of smallpox (caused by an orthopoxvirus (OPXV) related to MPXV) and cessation of routine smallpox vaccination (with the live OPXV vaccinia), there is an increasing population of people susceptible to OPXV diseases. Previous studies have shown that the prairie dog MPXV model is a functional animal model for the study of systemic human OPXV illness. Studies with this model have demonstrated that infected animals are able to transmit the virus to naive animals through multiple routes of exposure causing subsequent infection, but were not able to prove that infected animals could transmit the virus exclusively via the respiratory route. Herein we used the model system to evaluate the hypothesis that the Congo Basin clade of MPXV is more easily transmitted, via respiratory route, than the West African clade. Using a small number of test animals, we show that transmission of viruses from each of the MPXV clade was minimal via respiratory transmission. However, transmissibility of the Congo Basin clade was slightly greater than West African MXPV clade (16.7% and 0% respectively). Based on these findings, respiratory transmission appears to be less efficient than those of previous studies assessing contact as a mechanism of transmission within the prairie dog MPXV animal model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina L. Hutson
- Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Diseases, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
- Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Nadia Gallardo-Romero
- Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Diseases, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Darin S. Carroll
- Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Diseases, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Cody Clemmons
- Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Diseases, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Johanna S. Salzer
- Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Diseases, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
- Program in Population Biology, Ecology and Evolution, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Tamas Nagy
- Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Christine M. Hughes
- Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Diseases, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Victoria A. Olson
- Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Diseases, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Kevin L. Karem
- Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Diseases, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Inger K. Damon
- Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Diseases, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
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22
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Restif O, Hayman DTS, Pulliam JRC, Plowright RK, George DB, Luis AD, Cunningham AA, Bowen RA, Fooks AR, O'Shea TJ, Wood JLN, Webb CT. Model-guided fieldwork: practical guidelines for multidisciplinary research on wildlife ecological and epidemiological dynamics. Ecol Lett 2012; 15:1083-94. [PMID: 22809422 PMCID: PMC3466409 DOI: 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2012.01836.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2011] [Revised: 02/02/2012] [Accepted: 06/20/2012] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Infectious disease ecology has recently raised its public profile beyond the scientific community due to the major threats that wildlife infections pose to biological conservation, animal welfare, human health and food security. As we start unravelling the full extent of emerging infectious diseases, there is an urgent need to facilitate multidisciplinary research in this area. Even though research in ecology has always had a strong theoretical component, cultural and technical hurdles often hamper direct collaboration between theoreticians and empiricists. Building upon our collective experience of multidisciplinary research and teaching in this area, we propose practical guidelines to help with effective integration among mathematical modelling, fieldwork and laboratory work. Modelling tools can be used at all steps of a field-based research programme, from the formulation of working hypotheses to field study design and data analysis. We illustrate our model-guided fieldwork framework with two case studies we have been conducting on wildlife infectious diseases: plague transmission in prairie dogs and lyssavirus dynamics in American and African bats. These demonstrate that mechanistic models, if properly integrated in research programmes, can provide a framework for holistic approaches to complex biological systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivier Restif
- Disease Dynamics Unit, Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
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Nagamine B, Jones L, Tellgren-Roth C, Cavender J, Bratanich AC. A novel gammaherpesvirus isolated from a black-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus). Arch Virol 2011; 156:1835-40. [PMID: 21630099 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-011-1024-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2011] [Accepted: 05/06/2011] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
A new gammaherpesvirus, tentatively named cynomys herpesvirus 1 (CynGHV-1), was isolated from a black-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus). CynGHV-1 replicated cytopathogenically to moderate titers in various cell lines. Ten kb of the CynGHV-1 genome was sequenced using degenerate PCR and genomic cloning. Sequence similarities were found to different genes from known gammaherpesviruses. Phylogenetic analysis suggested that CynGHV-1 was in fact a novel virus closely related to representatives of different genera and unclassified members of the subfamily Gammaherpesvirinae. However, CynGHV-1 could not be assigned to any particular genus and therefore remains unclassified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandy Nagamine
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY 82070, USA
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24
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Fuller T, Thomassen HA, Mulembakani PM, Johnston SC, Lloyd-Smith JO, Kisalu NK, Lutete TK, Blumberg S, Fair JN, Wolfe ND, Shongo RL, Formenty P, Meyer H, Wright LL, Muyembe JJ, Buermann W, Saatchi SS, Okitolonda E, Hensley L, Smith TB, Rimoin AW. Using remote sensing to map the risk of human monkeypox virus in the Congo Basin. Ecohealth 2011; 8:14-25. [PMID: 21069425 PMCID: PMC3237841 DOI: 10.1007/s10393-010-0355-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2010] [Revised: 09/12/2010] [Accepted: 09/30/2010] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Although the incidence of human monkeypox has greatly increased in Central Africa over the last decade, resources for surveillance remain extremely limited. We conducted a geospatial analysis using existing data to better inform future surveillance efforts. Using active surveillance data collected between 2005 and 2007, we identified locations in Sankuru district, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) where there have been one or more cases of human monkeypox. To assess what taxa constitute the main reservoirs of monkeypox, we tested whether human cases were associated with (i) rope squirrels (Funisciurus sp.), which were implicated in monkeypox outbreaks elsewhere in the DRC in the 1980s, or (ii) terrestrial rodents in the genera Cricetomys and Graphiurus, which are believed to be monkeypox reservoirs in West Africa. Results suggest that the best predictors of human monkeypox cases are proximity to dense forests and associated habitat preferred by rope squirrels. The risk of contracting monkeypox is significantly greater near sites predicted to be habitable for squirrels (OR = 1.32; 95% CI 1.08-1.63). We recommend that semi-deciduous rainforests with oil-palm, the rope squirrel's main food source, be prioritized for monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trevon Fuller
- Center for Tropical Research, Institute of the Environment, University of California, Los Angeles, 619 Charles E. Young Dr. East, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1496 USA
| | - Henri A. Thomassen
- Center for Tropical Research, Institute of the Environment, University of California, Los Angeles, 619 Charles E. Young Dr. East, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1496 USA
| | | | - Sara C. Johnston
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, MD USA
| | - James O. Lloyd-Smith
- Fogarty International Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD USA
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA USA
| | - Neville K. Kisalu
- Department of Microbiology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA USA
| | - Timothee K. Lutete
- Kinshasa School of Public Health, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo
| | - Seth Blumberg
- Fogarty International Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD USA
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA USA
| | - Joseph N. Fair
- Global Viral Forecasting Initiative, San Francisco, CA USA
| | | | | | - Pierre Formenty
- Department of Global Alert and Response, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Hermann Meyer
- Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology, Munich, Germany
| | - Linda L. Wright
- The Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Bethesda, MD USA
| | - Jean-Jacques Muyembe
- National Institute of Biomedical Research, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo
| | - Wolfgang Buermann
- Center for Tropical Research, Institute of the Environment, University of California, Los Angeles, 619 Charles E. Young Dr. East, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1496 USA
- Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, CA USA
| | - Sassan S. Saatchi
- Center for Tropical Research, Institute of the Environment, University of California, Los Angeles, 619 Charles E. Young Dr. East, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1496 USA
- Radar Science Technical Group, Radar Science and Engineering Section, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA USA
| | - Emile Okitolonda
- Kinshasa School of Public Health, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo
| | - Lisa Hensley
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, MD USA
| | - Thomas B. Smith
- Center for Tropical Research, Institute of the Environment, University of California, Los Angeles, 619 Charles E. Young Dr. East, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1496 USA
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA USA
| | - Anne W. Rimoin
- Fogarty International Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD USA
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of California, 650 Charles E. Young Drive South, CHS 41-275, Los Angeles, CA 90095 USA
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Sainsbury AW, Deaville R, Lawson B, Cooley WA, Farelly SSJ, Stack MJ, Duff P, McInnes CJ, Gurnell J, Russell PH, Rushton SP, Pfeiffer DU, Nettleton P, Lurz PWW. Poxviral disease in red squirrels Sciurus vulgaris in the UK: spatial and temporal trends of an emerging threat. Ecohealth 2008; 5:305-316. [PMID: 18923872 DOI: 10.1007/s10393-008-0191-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2008] [Revised: 05/15/2008] [Accepted: 05/15/2008] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The squirrel poxvirus (SQPV) is the probable mediator of apparent competition between the introduced invading gray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) and the red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris) in the UK, and modeling studies have shown that this viral disease has had a significant impact on the decline of the red squirrel in the UK. However, given our limited understanding of the epidemiology of the disease, and more generally the effects of invasive species on parasite ecology, there is a need to investigate the transmission dynamics and the relative pathogenicity of the virus between species. We aimed to increase our knowledge of these processes through an empirical study in which we: (i) used pathological signs and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to diagnose SQPV disease in red squirrels found dead during scanning surveillance between 1993 and 2005; (ii) detected antibody to SQPV using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in the same animals; and (iii) mapped cases of the disease, and the gray squirrel distribution, using a geographical information system. We analyzed the distribution of cases of SQPV disease according to woodland type, a measure of squirrel density. SQPV disease occurred only in areas of England also inhabited by seropositive gray squirrels, and as the geographical range of gray squirrels expanded, SQPV disease occurred in these new gray squirrel habitats, supporting a role for the gray squirrel as a reservoir host of the virus. There was a delay between the establishment of invading gray squirrels and cases of the disease in red squirrels which implies gray squirrels must reach a threshold number or density before the virus is transmitted to red squirrels. The spatial and temporal trend in SQPV disease outbreaks suggested that SQPV disease will have a significant effect on Scottish populations of red squirrels within 25 years. The even spread of cases of disease across months suggested a direct rather than vector-borne transmission route is more likely. Eight juvenile and sub-adult free-living red squirrels apparently survived exposure to SQPV by mounting an immune response, the first evidence of immunity to SQPV in free-living red squirrels, which possibly suggests a changing host-parasite relationship and that the use of a vaccine may be an effective management tool to protect remnant red squirrel populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony W Sainsbury
- The Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regent's Park, London, NW1 4RY, UK.
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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). West Nile virus update--United States, January 1-July 22, 2008. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2008; 57:801. [PMID: 18650789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
This report summarizes 2008 West Nile virus (WNV) surveillance data reported to CDC through ArboNET as of 3 a.m. Mountain Daylight Time, July 22, 2008. A total of 14 states have reported 43 cases of human WNV illness to CDC. A total of 26 (54%) cases for which such data were available occurred in males; median age of patients was 46 years (range: 12-80 years). Dates of illness onset ranged from January 17 to July 10; none of the cases were fatal.
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27
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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). West Nile virus update--United States, January 1-November 13, 2007. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2007; 56:1191-2. [PMID: 18004238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
This report summarizes 2007 West Nile virus (WNV) surveillance data reported to CDC through ArboNET as of 3 a.m. Mountain Standard Time, November 13, 2007. A total of 43 states had reported 3,304 cases of human WNV illness to CDC. A total of 1,803 (55%) cases for which such data were available occurred in males; median age of patients was 51 years (range: 1 month-97 years). Dates of illness onset ranged from January 8 to November 6; a total of 93 cases were fatal.
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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). West Nile virus update--United States, January 1-October 16, 2007. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2007; 56:1084-5. [PMID: 17947968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
This report summarizes 2007 West Nile virus (WNV) surveillance data reported to CDC through ArboNET as of 3 a.m. Mountain Daylight Time, October 16, 2007. A total of 42 states have reported 3,022 cases of human WNV illness to CDC. A total of 1,646 (55%) cases for which such data were available occurred in males; median age of patients was 51 years (range: 15 months-97 years). Dates of illness onset ranged from January 8 to October 9; a total of 76 cases were fatal.
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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). West Nile virus update--United States, January 1-September 11, 2007. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2007; 56:936-7. [PMID: 17851447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
This report summarizes 2007 West Nile virus (WNV) surveillance data reported to CDC through ArboNET as of 3 a.m. Mountain Daylight Time, September 11, 2007. A total of 38 states have reported 1,395 cases of human WNV illness to CDC. A total of 770 (56%) cases for which such data were available occurred in males; median age of patients was 49 years (range: 15 months-96 years). Dates of illness onset ranged from January 8 to September 7; a total of 38 cases were fatal.
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Reynolds MG, Davidson WB, Curns AT, Conover CS, Huhn G, Davis JP, Wegner M, Croft DR, Newman A, Obiesie NN, Hansen GR, Hays PL, Pontones P, Beard B, Teclaw R, Howell JF, Braden Z, Holman RC, Karem KL, Damon IK. Spectrum of infection and risk factors for human monkeypox, United States, 2003. Emerg Infect Dis 2007; 13:1332-9. [PMID: 18252104 PMCID: PMC2857287 DOI: 10.3201/eid1309.070175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
For the 2003 monkeypox virus (MPXV) outbreak in the United States, interhuman transmission was not documented and all case-patients were near or handled MPXV-infected prairie dogs. We initiated a case-control study to evaluate risk factors for animal-to-human MPXV transmission. Participants completed a questionnaire requesting exposure, clinical, and demographic information. Serum samples were obtained for analysis of immunoglobulin G (IgG) and IgM to orthopoxvirus. When data were adjusted for smallpox vaccination, case-patients were more likely than controls to have had daily exposure to a sick animal (odds ratio [OR] 4.0, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.2-13.4), cleaned cages and bedding of a sick animal (OR 5.3, 95% CI 1.4-20.7), or touched a sick animal (OR 4.0, 95% CI 1.2-13.4). These findings demonstrate that human MPXV infection is associated with handling of MPXV-infected animals and suggest that exposure to excretions and secretions of infected animals can result in infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary G Reynolds
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia 30333, USA.
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31
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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). West Nile virus update--United States, January 1--august 14, 2007. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2007; 56:821-2. [PMID: 17703173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
This report summarizes 2007 West Nile virus (WNV) surveillance data reported to CDC through ArboNET as of 3 a.m. Mountain Daylight Time, August 14, 2007. A total of 27 states have reported 444 cases of human WNV illness to CDC. A total of 241 (54%) cases for which such data were available occurred in males; median age of patients was 48 years (range: 2-96 years). Dates of illness onset ranged from March 25 to August 5; 15 cases were fatal.
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32
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Croft DR, Sotir MJ, Williams CJ, Kazmierczak JJ, Wegner MV, Rausch D, Graham MB, Foldy SL, Wolters M, Damon IK, Karem KL, Davis JP. Occupational risks during a monkeypox outbreak, Wisconsin, 2003. Emerg Infect Dis 2007; 13:1150-7. [PMID: 17953084 PMCID: PMC2828073 DOI: 10.3201/eid1308.061365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
We determined factors associated with occupational transmission in Wisconsin during the 2003 outbreak of prairie dog--associated monkeypox virus infections. Our investigation included active contact surveillance, exposure-related interviews, and a veterinary facility cohort study. We identified 19 confirmed, 5 probable, and 3 suspected cases. Rash, headache, sweats, and fever were reported by > 80% of patients. Occupationally transmitted infections occurred in 12 veterinary staff, 2 pet store employees, and 2 animal distributors. The following were associated with illness: working directly with animal care (p = 0.002), being involved in prairie dog examination, caring for an animal within 6 feet of an ill prairie dog (p = 0.03), feeding an ill prairie dog (p = 0.002), and using an antihistamine (p = 0.04). Having never handled an ill prairie dog (p = 0.004) was protective. Veterinary staff used personal protective equipment sporadically. Our findings underscore the importance of standard veterinary infection-control guidelines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donita R Croft
- Wisconsin Department of Health and Family Services, Madison, Wisconsin, USA.
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33
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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). West Nile virus update--United States,January 1-July 24, 2007. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2007; 56:740-1. [PMID: 17657208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
This report summarizes 2007 West Nile virus (WNV) surveillance data reported to CDC through ArboNET as of 3 a.m. Mountain Daylight Time, July 24, 2007. A total of 19 states have reported 122 cases of human WNV illness to CDC. A total of 68 (56%) cases for which such data were available occurred in males; median age of patients was 48 years (range: 15 months-96 years). Dates of illness onset ranged from March 25 to July 18; three cases were fatal.
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Platt KB, Tucker BJ, Halbur PG, Tiawsirisup S, Blitvich BJ, Fabiosa FG, Bartholomay LC, Rowley WA. West Nile virus viremia in eastern chipmunks (Tamias striatus) sufficient for infecting different mosquitoes. Emerg Infect Dis 2007; 13:831-7. [PMID: 17553220 PMCID: PMC2792837 DOI: 10.3201/eid1306.061008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Chipmunks might play a role in enzootic WNV cycles and be an amplifying host for mosquitoes that infect humans. In eastern chipmunks (Tamias striatus) inoculated intramuscularly with 101.5 to 105.7 PFU of West Nile virus (WNV), serum titers developed sufficient to infect Aedes triseriatus (Say), Ae. vexans (Meigen), and Culex pipiens (L.). Mean titers (95% confidence interval) of 8 chipmunks were 103.9(3.3–4.5), 106.7(6.4–7.0), and 105.8(4.1–7.5) PFU/mL on days 1–3 postinoculation (p.i.) and 105.8 PFU/mL in 1 chipmunk on day 4 p.i. Mean estimated days that WNV titers were >104.8 and >105.6 were 1.7 (1.1–2.3) and 1.4 (1.0–1.6). The longest period of viremia >104.8 PFU/mL was 3–4 days. WNV antigen was detected in the small intestine of 2 chipmunks and the kidneys of 4 chipmunks by immunohistochemistry. WNV also was detected in urine, saliva, and feces of some chipmunks. These data suggest chipmunks might play a role in enzootic WNV cycles and be an amplifying host for mosquitoes that could infect humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth B Platt
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Preventive Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, USA.
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35
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Padgett KA, Reisen WK, Kahl-Purcell N, Fang Y, Cahoon-Young B, Carney R, Anderson N, Zucca L, Woods L, Husted S, Kramer VL. West Nile virus infection in tree squirrels (Rodentia: Sciuridae) in California, 2004-2005. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2007; 76:810-3. [PMID: 17488896 PMCID: PMC1939863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) transmission generally involves a mosquito vector and an avian reservoir host, with mammals as incidental hosts. Although most mammalian WNV infections cause low or no morbidity or mortality, tree squirrels are susceptible to WNV-associated neurologic disease with infection prevalence comparable to that in dead birds. Positive species included fox squirrel (Sciurus niger), western gray squirrel (S. griseus), and eastern gray squirrel (S. carolinensis). Kidney tissue (dissected and swabbed), and oropharyngeal (oral) swab samples from tree squirrels submitted by California vector control and rehabilitation agencies were tested by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction; cycle threshold values were similar for all three samples, ranging from 21.9 to 26.5. Kidney tissue was more sensitive than oral swabs for detecting WNV in squirrels. Three of 36 live neurologic tree squirrels had viremia approximately 5 log(10) plaque-forming units/mL or greater, similar to WNV-infected birds. Tree squirrels are useful in WNV surveillance and provide localized evidence of WNV transmission to mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerry A Padgett
- Vector-Borne Disease Section, Division of Communicable Disease Control, California Department of Health Services, Richmond, CA 94804, USA.
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36
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Root JJ, Oesterle PT, Sullivan HJ, Hall JS, Marlenee NL, McLean RG, Montenieri JA, Clark L. Fox squirrel (Sciurus niger) associations with West Nile virus. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2007; 76:782-4. [PMID: 17426187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Tree squirrels (Sciurus spp.) have been recently shown to be commonly exposed to West Nile virus (WNV). Many characteristics of WNV infections in tree squirrels are unknown. To better understand WNV associations in fox squirrels (S. niger), we conducted mark-recapture sampling (N = 72) and radio telemetry to study the longitudinal seroprevalence, seroconversions, and ectoparasites of these animals during 2005-2006 in northern Colorado. Five seroconversions were documented during this study. The majority of seroconversions occurred during the late summer/fall months. However, one seroconversion was documented over the time period of February to late March 2005. Fleas (Orchopeas howardi) were tested for WNV RNA using real-time PCR techniques. No WNV RNA positive fleas (N = 33) were detected. In addition, urine samples (N = 17) opportunistically collected from fox squirrels were negative for WNV RNA. Results indicate that seroconversions can be observed in fox squirrels during low WNV transmission years.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Jeffrey Root
- United States Department of Agriculture, Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, Colorado 80521, USA.
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37
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Sbrana E, Jordan R, Hruby DE, Mateo RI, Xiao SY, Siirin M, Newman PC, DA Rosa APAT, Tesh RB. Efficacy of the antipoxvirus compound ST-246 for treatment of severe orthopoxvirus infection. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2007; 76:768-73. [PMID: 17426185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Efficacy of the new antipoxvirus compound ST-246 was evaluated as treatment of monkeypox (MPX) virus infection in a ground squirrel model of the disease. Ground squirrels were given a lethal dose of MPX virus and were then treated orally at various times post-inoculation (pi) with 100 mg/kg/day of ST-246. Morbidity and mortality, clinical laboratory results, viral load, and pathology of placebo and treatment groups were compared. All animals that started treatment with ST-246 on days 0, 1, 2, and 3 pi survived lethal challenge with MPX virus; 67% of animals treated on day 4 pi also survived. In contrast, 100% of the placebo group died. Most of the ST-246-treated animals showed no evidence of clinical disease or alteration of baseline clinical laboratory values and had minimal histopathologic changes. These results suggest that ST-246 is a promising candidate for early treatment of severe orthopoxvirus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Sbrana
- Department of Pathology and Internal Medicine, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555, USA
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38
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Sbrana E, Xiao SY, Newman PC, Tesh RB. Comparative pathology of North American and central African strains of monkeypox virus in a ground squirrel model of the disease. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2007; 76:155-64. [PMID: 17255245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023] Open
Abstract
The first human cases of monkeypox (MPX) were recognized in central Africa in 1970. Since then, sporadic outbreaks of the disease have occurred in central and west Africa. In 2003, an outbreak of human MPX occurred in the United States after importation of infected rodents from west Africa. Clinical features of the 2003 outbreak were less severe than accounts of the disease among people in central Africa. The reasons for this observed difference are unknown. In this study, the clinical and pathologic characteristics of experimental infection with representative central African and North American MPX virus strains were compared in a ground squirrel model of the disease. The results indicate that the US 2003 virus, which phylogenetically is a member of the west African MPX virus clade, was less virulent than central African MPX virus strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Sbrana
- Department of Pathology and Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555, USA
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39
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Abstract
In 2003, US officials identified several human monkeypox cases and traced the virus exposure to infected captive prairie dogs. The virus was likely introduced through a shipment of imported African rodents, which were kept with other mammals, including prairie dogs, in a pet distribution facility in the Midwest. To prevent the further introduction and spread of the virus, federal agencies restricted the importation of African rodents and restricted the domestic trade or movement of prairie dogs and certain other rodents. In this qualitative assessment of the risk for monkeypox associated with the 2003 outbreak, we conclude that the probability of further human infection is low; the risk is further mitigated by rodent import restrictions. Were this zoonotic disease to become established domestically, the public health effects could be substantial.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan M Bernard
- US Food and Drug Administration, 3100 Paint Branch Pkwy, HFS-004, College Park, MD 20740, USA.
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40
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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). West nile virus activity--United States, January 1-November 7, 2006. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2006; 55:1204-5. [PMID: 17093387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
This report summarizes West Nile virus (WNV) surveillance data reported to CDC through ArboNET as of 3 a.m. Mountain Standard Time, November 7, 2006. A total of 41 states and the District of Columbia had reported 3,830 cases of human WNV illness to CDC.
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41
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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). West Nile virus activity--United States, January 1-October 10, 2006. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2006; 55:1097-8. [PMID: 17035928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
This report summarizes West Nile virus (WNV) surveillance data reported to CDC through ArboNET as of 3 a.m. Mountain Daylight Time, October 10, 2006. A total of 41 states and the District of Columbia had reported 3,135 cases of human WNV illness to CDC. A total of 1,717 (55%) cases for which such data were available occurred in males; median age of patients was 50 years (range: 3 months-99 years). Dates of illness onset ranged from January 6 to September 25; a total of 97 cases were fatal.
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42
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Root JJ, Oesterle PT, Nemeth NM, Klenk K, Gould DH, McLean RG, Clark L, Hall JS. Experimental infection of fox squirrels (Sciurus niger) with West Nile virus. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2006; 75:697-701. [PMID: 17038697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Tree squirrels (Sciurus spp.) have exhibited high seroprevalence rates, suggesting that they are commonly exposed to West Nile virus (WNV). Many characteristics of WNV infections in tree squirrels, such as the durations and levels of viremia, remain unknown. To better understand WNV infections in fox squirrels (S. niger), we subcutaneously inoculated fourteen fox squirrels with WNV. Peak viremias ranged from 10(4.00) plaque-forming units (PFU)/mL of serum on day 2 post-infection (DPI) to 10(4.98) PFU/mL on 3 DPI, although viremias varied between individuals. Oral secretions of some fox squirrels were positive for WNV viral RNA, occasionally to moderate levels (10(3.2) PFU equivalent/swab). WNV PFU equivalents in organs were low or undetectable on 12 DPI; gross and histologic lesions were rare. The viremia profiles of fox squirrels indicate that they could serve as amplifying hosts in nature. In addition, viral RNA in the oral cavity and feces indicate that this species could contribute to alternative WNV transmission in suburban communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Jeffrey Root
- United States Department of Agriculture, Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, CO 80521, USA.
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43
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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). West Nile virus activity--United States, January 1-September 12, 2006. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2006; 55:996. [PMID: 16971889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
This report summarizes West Nile virus (WNV) surveillance data reported to CDC through ArboNET as of 3 a.m. Mountain Daylight Time, September 12, 2006. A total of 36 states and the District of Columbia had reported 1,634 cases of human WNV illness to CDC. A total of 921 (57%) cases for which such data were available occurred in males; median age of patients was 51 years (range: 3 months-95 years). Dates of illness onset ranged from January 6 to September 10; a total of 52 cases were fatal.
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44
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Reynolds MG, Yorita KL, Kuehnert MJ, Davidson WB, Huhn GD, Holman RC, Damon IK. Clinical manifestations of human monkeypox influenced by route of infection. J Infect Dis 2006; 194:773-80. [PMID: 16941343 DOI: 10.1086/505880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 242] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2006] [Accepted: 04/06/2006] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In April 2003, an outbreak of monkeypox occurred in the United States following the importation of monkeypox virus (MPXV)-infected animals in a consignment of exotic pets from West Africa. Transmission of the virus to non-African captive species, including prairie dogs, preceded human disease. METHODS We evaluated the influence of the route of infection on clinical illness for persons with confirmed and probable cases of human monkeypox. Exposures were categorized as being "noninvasive" (e.g., the person touched an infected animal, cleaned an infected animal's cage, and/or stood within 6 feet of an infected animal) or "complex" (e.g., invasive bite or scratch from an ill prairie dog plus potential noninvasive exposure), and associations between exposure, illness manifestation, and illness progression (i.e., elapsed time from first exposure to an ill prairie dog through various benchmarks of illness) were assessed. RESULTS Patients with complex exposures were more likely than patients with noninvasive exposures to have experienced pronounced signs of systemic illness (49.1% vs. 16.7%; P=.041) and to have been hospitalized during illness (68.8% vs. 10.3%; P<.001). Complex exposures were also associated with shorter incubation periods (9 days for complex exposures vs. 13 days for noninvasive exposures) and the absence of a distinct febrile prodrome. CONCLUSIONS The findings of this study indicate that route of infection can influence monkeypox illness manifestations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary G Reynolds
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of Viral and Rickettsial Diseases, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
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45
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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). West Nile virus activity--United States, January 1-August 15, 2006. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2006; 55:879-80. [PMID: 16915222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
This report summarizes West Nile virus (WNV) surveillance data reported to CDC through ArboNET as of 3 a.m. Mountain Daylight Time, August 15, 2006. A total of 26 states had reported 388 cases of human WNV illness to CDC. A total of 214 (56%) cases for which such data were available occurred in males; median age of patients was 49 years (range: 2-91 years). Dates of illness onset ranged from January 6 to August 10; a total of 13 cases were fatal. A total of 68 presumptive West Nile viremic blood donors (PVDs) have been reported to ArboNET during 2006. Of these, 20 were reported from Nebraska; 18 were reported from Texas; five were reported from California; four were reported from Utah; three each were reported from Oklahoma and South Dakota; two each were reported from Idaho, Iowa, Kentucky, and Mississippi; and one each was reported from Arizona, Colorado, Minnesota, Nevada, North Dakota, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. Of the 68 PVDs, 10 persons (median age: 43 years [range: 18-59 years]) subsequently had West Nile fever.
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46
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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). West Nile virus activity--United States, January 1-December 1, 2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2005; 54:1253-6. [PMID: 16357821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is the leading cause of arboviral encephalitis in the United States. Originally discovered in Africa in 1937, WNV was first detected in the western hemisphere in 1999 in New York City. Since then it has caused seasonal epidemics of febrile illness and severe neurologic disease. During January 1-December 1, 2005, a total of 2,744 cases of WNV disease in humans were reported in the United States, an increase from 2,359 during the same period in 2004. A total of 1,165 cases were WNV neuroinvasive disease (WNND). WNV infections in humans, birds, mosquitoes, and nonhuman mammals are reported to CDC through ArboNET, an Internet-based arbovirus surveillance system managed by state health departments and CDC. During 2005, WNV transmission to humans or animals expanded into 21 counties that had not previously reported transmission and recurred in 1,196 counties where transmission had been reported in previous years. This report summarizes provisional WNV surveillance data through December 1, 2005, and highlights the need for ongoing surveillance, mosquito control, promotion of personal protection from mosquito bites, and research into additional prevention strategies.
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47
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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Update: West Nile virus activity--United States, 2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2005; 54:1105-6. [PMID: 16273721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
This report summarizes West Nile virus (WNV) surveillance data reported to CDC through ArboNET as of 3 a.m. Mountain Standard Time, November 1, 2005.
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48
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Kile JC, Fleischauer AT, Beard B, Kuehnert MJ, Kanwal RS, Pontones P, Messersmith HJ, Teclaw R, Karem KL, Braden ZH, Damon I, Khan AS, Fischer M. Transmission of monkeypox among persons exposed to infected prairie dogs in Indiana in 2003. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2005; 159:1022-5. [PMID: 16275790 DOI: 10.1001/archpedi.159.11.1022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To describe a cluster of human monkeypox cases associated with exposure to ill prairie dogs in a home child care. DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS We identified all persons exposed to 2 pet prairie dogs in County A, Indiana; performed active surveillance for symptomatic monkeypox infection; and evaluated the types of exposure that may have resulted in infection. For children who attended the child care where the animals were housed, we also measured the rate of seroconversion to monkeypox virus. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Nine (13%) of 70 persons exposed to the prairie dogs reported signs and symptoms of monkeypox. Two (40%) of 5 symptomatic child care attendees reported direct contact with the prairie dogs. Two (13%) of 15 child care attendees evaluated tested positive for IgM antibodies against orthopoxvirus; both reported symptoms consistent with monkeypox. RESULTS The risk of symptomatic infection correlated with the time and intensity of animal exposure, which was 100% (4/4) among family members with extensive direct contact, 19% (5/26) among the veterinarian and nonfamily child care attendees with moderate exposure, and 0% (0/40) among school children with limited exposure (P<.01). CONCLUSIONS Monkeypox virus was transmitted from ill prairie dogs in a child care and veterinary facilities. The risk of symptomatic infection correlated with the amount of exposure to the prairie dogs. Although most cases of human monkeypox were associated with direct animal contact, other routes of transmission cannot be excluded.
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Affiliation(s)
- James C Kile
- Environmental Health Services Branch, Division of Emergency and Environmental Health Services, National Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA.
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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Update: West Nile virus activity--United States, 2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2005; 54:1082-3. [PMID: 16252420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
This report summarizes West Nile virus (WNV) surveillance data reported to CDC through ArboNET as of 3 a.m. Mountain Daylight Time, October 25, 2005.
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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Update: West Nile virus activity--United States, 2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2005; 54:1056-7. [PMID: 16240532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
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