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Cimpean M, Cooper MA. Metabolic regulation of NK cell antiviral functions during cytomegalovirus infection. J Leukoc Biol 2023; 113:525-534. [PMID: 36843434 DOI: 10.1093/jleuko/qiad018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2022] [Revised: 01/23/2023] [Accepted: 02/09/2023] [Indexed: 02/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells quickly mount cytotoxic responses, produce cytokines, and proliferate in response to infected or transformed cells. Moreover, they can develop memory, with enhanced effector responses following activation, in some cases with antigen specificity. To optimally execute these functions, NK cells undergo metabolic reprogramming. Here, we discuss the interplay between metabolism and NK cell function in the context of viral infections. We review findings supporting metabolic regulation of NK cell effector functions, with a focus on NK cell antiviral infection in the context of cytomegalovirus in the mouse (MCMV) and human (HCMV).
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Cimpean
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Rheumatology/Immunology, Washington University in St. Louis, 660 S. Euclid Ave, Box 8208, St. Louis, MO 63110, United States
| | - Megan A Cooper
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Rheumatology/Immunology, Washington University in St. Louis, 660 S. Euclid Ave, Box 8208, St. Louis, MO 63110, United States
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2
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Zhu X, Hu Z, Yu T, Hu H, Zhao Y, Li C, Zhu Q, Wang M, Zhai P, He L, Riaz Rajoka MS, Song X, He Z. The Antiviral Effects of Jasminin via Endogenous TNF-α and the Underlying TNF-α-Inducing Action. MOLECULES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 27:molecules27051598. [PMID: 35268699 PMCID: PMC8911969 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27051598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2022] [Revised: 02/25/2022] [Accepted: 02/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies have reported that recombinant tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α has powerful antiviral activity but severe systematic side effects. Jasminin is a common bioactive component found in Chinese herbal medicine beverage “Jasmine Tea”. Here, we report that jasminin-induced endogenous TNF-α showed antiviral activity in vitro. The underlying TNF-α-inducing action of jasminin was also investigated in RAW264.7 cells. The level of endogenous TNF-α stimulated by jasminin was first analyzed by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) from the cell culture supernatant of RAW264.7 cells. The supernatants were then collected to investigate the potential antiviral effect against herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1). The antiviral effects of jasminin alone or its supernatants were evaluated by a plaque reduction assay. The potential activation of the PI3K–Akt pathway, three main mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), and nuclear factor (NF)–κB signaling pathways that induce TNF-α production were also investigated. Jasminin induces TNF-α protein expression in RAW264.7 cells without additional stimuli 10-fold more than the control. No significant up-expression of type I, II, and III interferons; interleukins 2 and 10; nor TNF-β were observed by the jasminin stimuli. The supernatants, containing jasminin-induced-TNF-α, showed antiviral activity against HSV-1. The jasminin-stimulated cells caused the simultaneous activation of the Akt, MAPKs, and NF–κB signal pathways. Furthermore, the pretreatment of the cells with the Akt, MAPKs, and NF–κB inhibitors effectively suppressed jasminin-induced TNF-α production. Our research provides evidence that endogenous TNF-α can be used as a strategy to encounter viral infections. Additionally, the Akt, MAPKs, and NF–κB signaling pathways are involved in the TNF-α synthesis that induced by jasminin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohong Zhu
- Affiliated Longhua People’s Hospital, Southern Medical University, Shenzhen 518172, China;
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Basic Medicine, Health Science Center, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518000, China; (Z.H.); (T.Y.); (H.H.); (Y.Z.); (C.L.)
| | - Ziwei Hu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Basic Medicine, Health Science Center, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518000, China; (Z.H.); (T.Y.); (H.H.); (Y.Z.); (C.L.)
| | - Tian Yu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Basic Medicine, Health Science Center, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518000, China; (Z.H.); (T.Y.); (H.H.); (Y.Z.); (C.L.)
| | - Hao Hu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Basic Medicine, Health Science Center, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518000, China; (Z.H.); (T.Y.); (H.H.); (Y.Z.); (C.L.)
| | - Yunshi Zhao
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Basic Medicine, Health Science Center, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518000, China; (Z.H.); (T.Y.); (H.H.); (Y.Z.); (C.L.)
| | - Chenyang Li
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Basic Medicine, Health Science Center, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518000, China; (Z.H.); (T.Y.); (H.H.); (Y.Z.); (C.L.)
| | - Qinchang Zhu
- College of Pharmacy, Shenzhen Technology University, Shenzhen 518118, China; (Q.Z.); (M.W.)
| | - Mingzhong Wang
- College of Pharmacy, Shenzhen Technology University, Shenzhen 518118, China; (Q.Z.); (M.W.)
| | - Peng Zhai
- Faculty of Information Technology, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau 999078, China;
| | - Longxia He
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Chengdu Integrated TCM&Western Medicine Hospital, Chengdu 610017, China;
| | - Muhammad Shahid Riaz Rajoka
- Laboratory of Animal Food Function, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8572, Japan;
| | - Xun Song
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Basic Medicine, Health Science Center, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518000, China; (Z.H.); (T.Y.); (H.H.); (Y.Z.); (C.L.)
- College of Pharmacy, Shenzhen Technology University, Shenzhen 518118, China; (Q.Z.); (M.W.)
- Correspondence: (X.S.); (Z.H.)
| | - Zhendan He
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Basic Medicine, Health Science Center, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518000, China; (Z.H.); (T.Y.); (H.H.); (Y.Z.); (C.L.)
- College of Pharmacy, Shenzhen Technology University, Shenzhen 518118, China; (Q.Z.); (M.W.)
- Correspondence: (X.S.); (Z.H.)
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3
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Banete A, Barilo J, Whittaker R, Basta S. The Activated Macrophage - A Tough Fortress for Virus Invasion: How Viruses Strike Back. Front Microbiol 2022; 12:803427. [PMID: 35087503 PMCID: PMC8787342 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.803427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Macrophages (Mφ) are innate immune cells with a variety of functional phenotypes depending on the cytokine microenvironment they reside in. Mφ exhibit distinct activation patterns that are found within a wide array of activation states ranging from the originally discovered classical pro-inflammatory (M1) to the anti-inflammatory (M2) with their multi-facades. M1 cells are induced by IFNγ + LPS, while M2 are further subdivided into M2a (IL-4), M2b (Immune Complex) and M2c (IL-10) based on their inducing stimuli. Not surprisingly, Mφ activation influences the outcome of viral infections as they produce cytokines that in turn activate cells of the adaptive immune system. Generally, activated M1 cells tend to restrict viral replication, however, influenza and HIV exploit inflammation to support their replication. Moreover, M2a polarization inhibits HIV replication at the post-integration level, while HCMV encoded hrIL-10 suppresses inflammatory reactions by facilitating M2c formation. Additionally, viruses such as LCMV and Lassa Virus directly suppress Mφ activation leading to viral chronicity. Here we review how Mφ activation affects viral infection and the strategies by which viruses manipulate Mφ polarization to benefit their own fitness. An understanding of these mechanisms is important for the development of novel immunotherapies that can sway Mφ phenotype to inhibit viral replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andra Banete
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada.,Department of Biological Sciences, Sunnybrook Research Institute, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Julia Barilo
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Reese Whittaker
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Sameh Basta
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada
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Petrina M, Martin J, Basta S. Granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor has come of age: From a vaccine adjuvant to antiviral immunotherapy. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2021; 59:101-110. [PMID: 33593661 PMCID: PMC8064670 DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2021.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Revised: 12/28/2020] [Accepted: 01/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
GM-CSF acts as a pro-inflammatory cytokine and a key growth factor produced by several immune cells such as macrophages and activated T cells. In this review, we discuss recent studies that point to the crucial role of GM-CSF in the immune response against infections. Upon induction, GM-CSF activates four main signalling networks including the JAK/STAT, PI3K, MAPK, and NFκB pathways. Many of these transduction pathways such as JAK/STAT signal via proteins commonly activated with other antiviral signalling cascades, such as those induced by IFNs. GM-CSF also helps defend against respiratory infections by regulating alveolar macrophage differentiation and enhancing innate immunity in the lungs. Here, we also summarize the numerous clinical trials that have taken advantage of GM-CSF's mechanistic attributes in immunotherapy. Moreover, we discuss how GM-CSF is used as an adjuvant in vaccines and how its activity is interfered with to reduce inflammation such as in the case of COVID-19. This review brings forth the current knowledge on the antiviral actions of GM-CSF, the associated signalling cascades, and its application in immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Petrina
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Queen's University, Kingston, Canada
| | - Jacqueline Martin
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Queen's University, Kingston, Canada
| | - Sameh Basta
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Queen's University, Kingston, Canada.
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Holtappels R, Freitag K, Renzaho A, Becker S, Lemmermann NA, Reddehase MJ. Revisiting CD8 T-cell 'Memory Inflation': New Insights with Implications for Cytomegaloviruses as Vaccine Vectors. Vaccines (Basel) 2020; 8:vaccines8030402. [PMID: 32707744 PMCID: PMC7563500 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines8030402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2020] [Revised: 07/09/2020] [Accepted: 07/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Murine models of cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection have revealed an exceptional kinetics of the immune response. After resolution of productive infection, transient contraction of the viral epitope-specific CD8 T-cell pool was found to be followed by a pool expansion specific for certain viral epitopes during non-productive ‘latent’ infection. This phenomenon, known as ‘memory inflation’ (MI), was found to be based on inflationary KLRG1+CD62L− effector-memory T cells (iTEM) that depend on repetitive restimulation. MI gained substantial interest for employing CMV as vaccine vector by replacing MI-driving CMV epitopes with foreign epitopes for generating high numbers of protective memory cells specific for unrelated pathogens. The concept of an MI-driving CMV vector is questioned by human studies disputing MI in humans. A bias towards MI in experimental models may have resulted from systemic infection. We have here studied local murine CMV infection as a route that is more closely matching routine human vaccine application. Notably, KLRG1−CD62L+ central memory T cells (TCM) and conventional KLRG1−CD62L− effector memory T cells (cTEM) were found to expand, associated with ‘avidity maturation’, whereas the pool size of iTEM steadily declined over time. The establishment of high avidity CD8 T-cell central memory encourages one to pursue the concept of CMV vector-based vaccines.
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Brey CU, Proff J, Teufert N, Salzer B, Brozy J, Münz M, Pendzialek J, Ensser A, Holter W, Lehner M. A gB/CD3 bispecific BiTE antibody construct for targeting Human Cytomegalovirus-infected cells. Sci Rep 2018; 8:17453. [PMID: 30487534 PMCID: PMC6261951 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-36055-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2018] [Accepted: 11/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Bispecific T cell engager (BiTE) antibody constructs are successfully used as cancer therapeutics. We hypothesized that this treatment strategy could also be applicable for therapy of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection, since HCMV-encoded proteins are abundantly expressed on the surface of infected cells. Here we show that a BiTE antibody construct directed against HCMV glycoprotein B (gB) and CD3 efficiently triggers T cells to secrete IFN-γ and TNF upon co-culture with fibroblasts infected with HCMV strain AD169, Towne or Toledo. Titration of gB expression levels in non-infected cells confirmed that already low levels of gB are sufficient for efficient triggering of T cells in presence of the BiTE antibody construct. Comparison of redirecting T cells with the bispecific antibody versus a chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) based on the same scFv showed a similar sensitivity for gB expression. Although lysis of infected target cells was absent, the BiTE antibody construct inhibited HCMV replication by triggering cytokine production. Notably, even strongly diluted supernatants of the activated T cells efficiently blocked the replication of HCMV in infected primary fibroblasts. In summary, our data prove the functionality of the first BiTE antibody construct targeting an HCMV-encoded glycoprotein for inhibiting HCMV replication in infected cells.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Julia Proff
- Children's Cancer Research Institute, Vienna, Austria
| | - Natascha Teufert
- Institute for Clinical and Molecular Virology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | | | | | - Markus Münz
- AMGEN Research (Munich) GmbH, Munich, Germany
| | | | - Armin Ensser
- Institute for Clinical and Molecular Virology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Holter
- Children's Cancer Research Institute, Vienna, Austria
- St. Anna Kinderspital, Department of Pediatrics, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Manfred Lehner
- Children's Cancer Research Institute, Vienna, Austria.
- St. Anna Kinderspital, Department of Pediatrics, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
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7
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Rattay S, Graf D, Kislat A, Homey B, Herebian D, Häussinger D, Hengel H, Zimmermann A, Schupp AK. Anti-inflammatory consequences of bile acid accumulation in virus-infected bile duct ligated mice. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0199863. [PMID: 29953538 PMCID: PMC6023182 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0199863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2018] [Accepted: 06/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Cholestatic patients exhibiting high bile acid serum levels were reported to be more susceptible to bacterial and viral infections. Animal studies in bile duct ligated (BDL) mice suggest that cholestasis leads to an aggravation of hepatic bacterial infections. We have investigated the impact of cholestasis on mouse cytomegalovirus (MCMV)-induced immune responses and viral replication. While MCMV did not aggravate BDL-induced liver damage, BDL markedly reduced MCMV-triggered chemokine expression and immune cell recruitment to the liver. MCMV-infected BDL mice showed diminished trafficking of Ly6C+/F4/80+ myeloid cells and NK1.1+ NK cells to the liver compared to MCMV infected control mice. Moreover, virus-driven expression of CCL7, CCL12, CXCL9 and CXCL10 was clearly impaired in BDL- compared to sham-operated mice. Furthermore, production of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 was massively augmented in infected BDL mice. In contrast, intra- and extrahepatic virus replication was unaltered in BDL-MCMV mice when compared to sham-MCMV mice. Cholestasis in the BDL model severely impaired pathogen-induced chemokine expression in the liver affecting CCR2- and CXCR3-dependent cell trafficking. Cholestasis resulted in reduced recruitment of inflammatory monocytes and NK cells to the liver.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Rattay
- Institute of Virology, Heinrich-Heine-University, University Hospital, Duesseldorf, Germany
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Clinical Pharmacology, University Hospital, Bonn, Germany
| | - Dirk Graf
- Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, Heinrich-Heine-University, University Hospital, Duesseldorf, Germany
| | - Andreas Kislat
- Department of Dermatology, Heinrich-Heine-University, University Hospital, Duesseldorf, Germany
| | - Bernhard Homey
- Department of Dermatology, Heinrich-Heine-University, University Hospital, Duesseldorf, Germany
| | - Diran Herebian
- Department of General Pediatrics, Neonatology and Pediatric Cardiology, Heinrich-Heine-University, University Hospital, Duesseldorf, Germany
| | - Dieter Häussinger
- Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, Heinrich-Heine-University, University Hospital, Duesseldorf, Germany
| | - Hartmut Hengel
- Institute of Virology, Medical Center, Albert-Ludwigs-University, Freiburg, Germany
- Department for Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, Institute of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Albert-Ludwigs-University, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Albert Zimmermann
- Institute of Virology, Heinrich-Heine-University, University Hospital, Duesseldorf, Germany
| | - Anna-Kathrin Schupp
- Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, Heinrich-Heine-University, University Hospital, Duesseldorf, Germany
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Hakim MS, Ding S, Chen S, Yin Y, Su J, van der Woude CJ, Fuhler GM, Peppelenbosch MP, Pan Q, Wang W. TNF-α exerts potent anti-rotavirus effects via the activation of classical NF-κB pathway. Virus Res 2018; 253:28-37. [PMID: 29859235 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2018.05.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2017] [Revised: 05/11/2018] [Accepted: 05/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Active virus-host interactions determine the outcome of pathogen invasions. It has been shown that in isolated dendritic cells (DCs), rotavirus can induce the expression of tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), a vital cytokine mediating host immune responses. However, the role of TNF-α in rotavirus infection is unknown. In this study, we demonstrated that TNF-α has potent anti-rotavirus effects, independent of type I interferon production. Blocking of TNF-α by infliximab, a clinically available TNFα antibody, totally abrogated this effect. Mechanistic studies revealed that the anti-rotavirus effect of TNF-α was achieved by NFκB-regulated genes via the activation of classical nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) signaling. Our study reveals the pivotal role and the mechanism-of-actions of TNF-α in the host defense against rotavirus. Thus, this knowledge may contribute to the better understanding of the complexity of rotavirus-host interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamad S Hakim
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Erasmus MC-University Medical Center and Postgraduate School Molecular Medicine, Rotterdam, The Netherlands; Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
| | - Shihao Ding
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Erasmus MC-University Medical Center and Postgraduate School Molecular Medicine, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Sunrui Chen
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Erasmus MC-University Medical Center and Postgraduate School Molecular Medicine, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Yuebang Yin
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Erasmus MC-University Medical Center and Postgraduate School Molecular Medicine, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Junhong Su
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Erasmus MC-University Medical Center and Postgraduate School Molecular Medicine, Rotterdam, The Netherlands; Medical Faculty, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, PR China
| | - C Janneke van der Woude
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Erasmus MC-University Medical Center and Postgraduate School Molecular Medicine, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Gwenny M Fuhler
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Erasmus MC-University Medical Center and Postgraduate School Molecular Medicine, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Maikel P Peppelenbosch
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Erasmus MC-University Medical Center and Postgraduate School Molecular Medicine, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Qiuwei Pan
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Erasmus MC-University Medical Center and Postgraduate School Molecular Medicine, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Wenshi Wang
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Erasmus MC-University Medical Center and Postgraduate School Molecular Medicine, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
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Proff J, Brey CU, Ensser A, Holter W, Lehner M. Turning the tables on cytomegalovirus: targeting viral Fc receptors by CARs containing mutated CH2-CH3 IgG spacer domains. J Transl Med 2018; 16:26. [PMID: 29422056 PMCID: PMC5804023 DOI: 10.1186/s12967-018-1394-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2017] [Accepted: 01/22/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Background During infection with human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) several viral proteins occur on cell surfaces in high quantity. We thus pursue an HLA-independent approach for immunotherapy of HCMV using chimeric antigen receptors (CARs) and bispecific BiTE® antibody constructs. In this context, HCMV-encoded proteins that mediate viral immune evasion and bind human IgG might represent particularly attractive target antigens. Unlike in observations of similar approaches for HIV and hepatitis B and C viruses, however, HCMV-infected cells develop a striking resistance to cytotoxic effector functions at later stages of the replication cycle. In our study we therefore wanted to test two hypotheses: (1) CAR T cells can efficiently inhibit HCMV replication independently from cytotoxic effector functions, and (2) HCMV can be targeted by CH2–CH3 IgG spacer domains that contain mutations previously reported to prevent exhaustion and to rescue CAR T cell function in vivo. Methods Replication of GFP-encoding recombinant HCMV in fibroblasts in the presence and absence of supernatants from T cell co-cultures plus/minus cytokine neutralizing antibodies was analyzed by flow cytometry. CARs with wild type and mutated CH2–CH3 domains were expressed in human T cells by mRNA electroporation, and the function of the CARs was assessed by quantifying T cell cytokine secretion. Results We confirm and extend previous evidence of antiviral cytokine effects and demonstrate that CAR T cells strongly block HCMV replication in fibroblasts mainly by combined secretion of IFN-γ and TNF. Furthermore, we show that fibroblasts infected with HCMV strains AD169 and Towne starting from day 3 have a high capacity for binding of human IgG1 and also strongly activate T cells expressing a CAR with CH2–CH3 domain. Importantly, we further show that mutations in the CH2–CH3 domain of IgG1 and IgG4, which were previously reported to rescue CAR T cell function by abrogating interaction with endogenous Fc receptors (FcRs), still enable recognition of FcRs encoded by HCMV. Conclusions Our findings identify HCMV-encoded FcRs as an attractive additional target for HCMV immunotherapy by CARs and possibly bispecific antibodies. The use of specifically mutated IgG domains that bind to HCMV-FcRs without recognizing endogenous FcRs may supersede screening for novel binders directed against individual HCMV-FcRs. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12967-018-1394-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Proff
- Children's Cancer Research Institute, Zimmermannplatz 10, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Charlotte U Brey
- Children's Cancer Research Institute, Zimmermannplatz 10, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Armin Ensser
- Institute for Clinical and Molecular Virology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Schlossgarten 4, 91054, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Holter
- Children's Cancer Research Institute, Zimmermannplatz 10, 1090, Vienna, Austria.,St. Anna Kinderspital, Department of Pediatrics, Medical University of Vienna, Kinderspitalgasse 6, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Manfred Lehner
- Children's Cancer Research Institute, Zimmermannplatz 10, 1090, Vienna, Austria. .,St. Anna Kinderspital, Department of Pediatrics, Medical University of Vienna, Kinderspitalgasse 6, 1090, Vienna, Austria.
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10
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Mouse cytomegalovirus M36 and M45 death suppressors cooperate to prevent inflammation resulting from antiviral programmed cell death pathways. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 114:E2786-E2795. [PMID: 28292903 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1616829114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The complex interplay between caspase-8 and receptor-interacting protein (RIP) kinase RIP 3 (RIPK3) driving extrinsic apoptosis and necroptosis is not fully understood. Murine cytomegalovirus triggers both apoptosis and necroptosis in infected cells; however, encoded inhibitors of caspase-8 activity (M36) and RIP3 signaling (M45) suppress these antiviral responses. Here, we report that this virus activates caspase-8 in macrophages to trigger apoptosis that gives rise to secondary necroptosis. Infection with double-mutant ΔM36/M45mutRHIM virus reveals a signaling pattern in which caspase-8 activates caspase-3 to drive apoptosis with subsequent RIP3-dependent activation of mixed lineage kinase domain-like (MLKL) leading to necroptosis. This combined cell death signaling is highly inflammatory, greater than either apoptosis induced by ΔM36 or necroptosis induced by M45mutRHIM virus. IL-6 production by macrophages is dramatically increased during double-mutant virus infection and correlates with faster antiviral responses in the host. Collaboratively, M36 and M45 target caspase-8 and RIP3 pathways together to suppress this proinflammatory cell death. This study reveals the effect of antiviral programmed cell death pathways on inflammation, shows that caspase-8 activation may go hand-in-hand with necroptosis in macrophages, and revises current understanding of independent and collaborative functions of M36 and M45 in blocking apoptotic and necroptotic cell death responses.
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11
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Ehlting C, Trilling M, Tiedje C, Le-Trilling VTK, Albrecht U, Kluge S, Zimmermann A, Graf D, Gaestel M, Hengel H, Häussinger D, Bode JG. MAPKAP kinase 2 regulates IL-10 expression and prevents formation of intrahepatic myeloid cell aggregates during cytomegalovirus infections. J Hepatol 2016; 64:380-389. [PMID: 26299622 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2015.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2015] [Revised: 07/19/2015] [Accepted: 08/11/2015] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS The kinase p38(MAPK) and its downstream target MAPKAP kinase (MK) 2 are critical regulators of inflammatory responses towards pathogens. To date, the relevance of MK2 for regulating IL-10 expression and other cytokine responses towards cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection and the impact of this pathway on viral replication in vitro and in vivo is unknown and the subject of this study. METHODS The effect of MK2, interferon-α receptor (IFNAR)1, tristetraprolin (TTP) and IL-10 on mouse (M)CMV virus titres, cytokine expression, signal transduction, transcript stability, liver enzymes release, immune cell recruitment and aggregation in response to MCMV infection were studied ex vivo in hepatocytes and macrophages, as well as in vivo. RESULTS MK2 is critical for MCMV-induced production of IL-10, IFN-α2 and 4, IFN-β, IL-6, and TNF-α but not for IFN-γ. The MCMV-induced IL-10 production requires activation of IFNAR1 and is further regulated by MK2 and TTP-dependent stabilization of IL-10 transcripts. MK2(-/-) mice are able to control acute MCMV replication, despite deregulated cytokine production. This may be related to the observation that MCMV-infected MK2(-/-) mice show enhanced formation of focal intrahepatic lymphocyte infiltrates resembling intrahepatic myeloid cell aggregates of T cell expansion (iMATEs), which were also observed in MCMV-infected IL-10(-/-) mice but are almost absent in MCMV-infected wild-type controls. CONCLUSIONS The data suggest that MK2 is critical for regulating cytokine responses towards acute MCMV infection, including that of IL-10 via IFNARI-mediated circuits. MCMV stimulates expression of MK2-dependent cytokines, in particular IL-10 and thereby prevents enhanced formation of intrahepatic iMATE-like cellular aggregates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Ehlting
- Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, University Hospital, Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine-University of Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Mirko Trilling
- Institute for Virology, University Hospital, University Duisburg-Essen, Germany; Institute for Virology, Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine-University Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Christopher Tiedje
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Vu Thuy Khanh Le-Trilling
- Institute for Virology, University Hospital, University Duisburg-Essen, Germany; Institute for Virology, Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine-University Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Ute Albrecht
- Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, University Hospital, Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine-University of Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Stefanie Kluge
- Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, University Hospital, Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine-University of Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Albert Zimmermann
- Institute for Virology, Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine-University Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Dirk Graf
- Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, University Hospital, Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine-University of Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Matthias Gaestel
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Hartmut Hengel
- Institute of Virology, University Medical Center, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg, Germany
| | - Dieter Häussinger
- Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, University Hospital, Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine-University of Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Johannes Georg Bode
- Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, University Hospital, Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine-University of Düsseldorf, Germany.
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12
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Xia Y, Stadler D, Lucifora J, Reisinger F, Webb D, Hösel M, Michler T, Wisskirchen K, Cheng X, Zhang K, Chou WM, Wettengel JM, Malo A, Bohne F, Hoffmann D, Eyer F, Thimme R, Falk CS, Thasler WE, Heikenwalder M, Protzer U. Interferon-γ and Tumor Necrosis Factor-α Produced by T Cells Reduce the HBV Persistence Form, cccDNA, Without Cytolysis. Gastroenterology 2016; 150:194-205. [PMID: 26416327 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2015.09.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 229] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2014] [Revised: 09/05/2015] [Accepted: 09/19/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Viral clearance involves immune cell cytolysis of infected cells. However, studies of hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection in chimpanzees have indicated that cytokines released by T cells also can promote viral clearance via noncytolytic processes. We investigated the noncytolytic mechanisms by which T cells eliminate HBV from infected hepatocytes. METHODS We performed a cytokine enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay of serum samples from patients with acute and chronic hepatitis B. Liver biopsy specimens were analyzed by in situ hybridization. HepG2-H1.3 cells, HBV-infected HepaRG cells, and primary human hepatocytes were incubated with interferon-γ (IFNγ) or tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), or co-cultured with T cells. We measured markers of HBV replication, including the covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA). RESULTS Levels of IFNγ and TNF-α were increased in serum samples from patients with acute vs chronic hepatitis B and controls. In human hepatocytes with stably replicating HBV, as well as in HBV-infected primary human hepatocytes or HepaRG cells, IFNγ and TNF-α each induced deamination of cccDNA and interfered with its stability; their effects were additive. HBV-specific T cells, through secretion of IFNγ and TNF-α, inhibited HBV replication and reduced cccDNA in infected cells without the direct contact required for cytolysis. Blocking IFNγ and TNF-α after T-cell stimulation prevented the loss of cccDNA. Deprivation of cccDNA required activation of nuclear APOBEC3 deaminases by the cytokines. In liver biopsy specimens from patients with acute hepatitis B, but not chronic hepatitis B or controls, hepatocytes expressed APOBEC3A and APOBEC3B. CONCLUSIONS IFNγ and TNF-α, produced by T cells, reduce levels of HBV cccDNA in hepatocytes by inducing deamination and subsequent cccDNA decay.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuchen Xia
- Institute of Virology, Technische Universität München/Helmholtz Zentrum München, Munich, Germany
| | - Daniela Stadler
- Institute of Virology, Technische Universität München/Helmholtz Zentrum München, Munich, Germany
| | - Julie Lucifora
- Institute of Virology, Technische Universität München/Helmholtz Zentrum München, Munich, Germany; German Center for Infection Research, Munich and Hannover, Germany
| | - Florian Reisinger
- Institute of Virology, Technische Universität München/Helmholtz Zentrum München, Munich, Germany
| | - Dennis Webb
- Institute for Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Hygiene, University Hospital Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Marianna Hösel
- Institute for Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Hygiene, University Hospital Cologne, Cologne, Germany; Center for Molecular Medicine Cologne, University Hospital Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Thomas Michler
- Institute of Virology, Technische Universität München/Helmholtz Zentrum München, Munich, Germany
| | - Karin Wisskirchen
- Institute of Virology, Technische Universität München/Helmholtz Zentrum München, Munich, Germany; German Center for Infection Research, Munich and Hannover, Germany
| | - Xiaoming Cheng
- Institute of Virology, Technische Universität München/Helmholtz Zentrum München, Munich, Germany
| | - Ke Zhang
- Institute of Virology, Technische Universität München/Helmholtz Zentrum München, Munich, Germany
| | - Wen-Min Chou
- Institute of Virology, Technische Universität München/Helmholtz Zentrum München, Munich, Germany
| | - Jochen M Wettengel
- Institute of Virology, Technische Universität München/Helmholtz Zentrum München, Munich, Germany
| | - Antje Malo
- Institute of Virology, Technische Universität München/Helmholtz Zentrum München, Munich, Germany
| | - Felix Bohne
- Institute of Virology, Technische Universität München/Helmholtz Zentrum München, Munich, Germany
| | - Dieter Hoffmann
- Institute of Virology, Technische Universität München/Helmholtz Zentrum München, Munich, Germany
| | - Florian Eyer
- Medicine II, Department of Clinical Toxicology, University Hospital rechts der Isar of the Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Robert Thimme
- Department of Medicine II, University Hospital Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Christine S Falk
- German Center for Infection Research, Munich and Hannover, Germany; Abt Transplantationsimmunologie, Medizinische Hochschule Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Wolfgang E Thasler
- Department of General, Visceral, Transplantation, Vascular and Thoracic Surgery, Grosshadern Hospital, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany
| | - Mathias Heikenwalder
- Institute of Virology, Technische Universität München/Helmholtz Zentrum München, Munich, Germany
| | - Ulrike Protzer
- Institute of Virology, Technische Universität München/Helmholtz Zentrum München, Munich, Germany; German Center for Infection Research, Munich and Hannover, Germany.
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13
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Bartee E, McFadden G. Cytokine synergy: an underappreciated contributor to innate anti-viral immunity. Cytokine 2013; 63:237-40. [PMID: 23693158 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2013.04.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2013] [Accepted: 04/29/2013] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Inflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor and the members of the interferon family, are potent mediators of the innate anti-viral immune response. The intracellular anti-viral states resulting from treatment of cultured cells with each of these molecules independently has been well studied; but, within complex tissues, the early inflammatory response is likely mediated by simultaneously expressed mixtures of these, and other, protective anti-viral cytokines. Such cytokine mixtures have been shown to induce potently synergistic anti-viral responses in vitro which are more complex than the simple summation of the individual cytokine response profiles. The physiological role of this 'cytokine synergy', however, remains largely unappreciated in vivo. This brief commentary will attempt to summarize the potential effects and mechanisms of anti-viral cytokine synergy as well as present several 'real-world' applications where this phenomenon might play an important role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Bartee
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA.
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14
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Walton S, Mandaric S, Oxenius A. CD4 T cell responses in latent and chronic viral infections. Front Immunol 2013; 4:105. [PMID: 23717308 PMCID: PMC3651995 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2013.00105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2013] [Accepted: 04/22/2013] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The spectrum of tasks which is fulfilled by CD4 T cells in the setting of viral infections is large, ranging from support of CD8 T cells and humoral immunity to exertion of direct antiviral effector functions. While our knowledge about the differentiation pathways, plasticity, and memory of CD4 T cell responses upon acute infections or immunizations has significantly increased during the past years, much less is still known about CD4 T cell differentiation and their beneficial or pathological functions during persistent viral infections. In this review we summarize current knowledge about the differentiation, direct or indirect antiviral effector functions, and the regulation of virus-specific CD4 T cells in the setting of persistent latent or active chronic viral infections with a particular emphasis on herpes virus infections for the former and chronic lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus infection for the latter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Senta Walton
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Western Australia Nedlands, WA, Australia
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15
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Howell J, Visvanathan K. The role of natural killer cells in hepatitis C infection. Antivir Ther 2013; 18:853-65. [PMID: 23559549 DOI: 10.3851/imp2565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/30/2013] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
HCV infection is an exponentially growing health burden worldwide, with an estimated 170 million people infected. Although therapies for HCV are continually improving, there remain a considerable proportion of patients who do not achieve viral eradication and develop liver disease. Natural killer (NK) cells are crucial for T-cell activation and are one of the first-line sentinel cell responders to viral infection. A recent explosion in studies exploring the role of NK cells in HCV infection has yielded important mechanistic information and intriguing potential therapeutic options for HCV infection. This review provides a general overview of normal NK cell function and outlines some of the important mechanisms characterizing the immune interplay between NK cells and HCV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Howell
- Liver Transplant Unit, Austin Hospital, Melbourne, Australia.
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16
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Ebermann L, Ruzsics Z, Guzmán CA, van Rooijen N, Casalegno-Garduño R, Koszinowski U, Čičin-Šain L. Block of death-receptor apoptosis protects mouse cytomegalovirus from macrophages and is a determinant of virulence in immunodeficient hosts. PLoS Pathog 2012; 8:e1003062. [PMID: 23271968 PMCID: PMC3521658 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2012] [Accepted: 10/16/2012] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
The inhibition of death-receptor apoptosis is a conserved viral function. The murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) gene M36 is a sequence and functional homologue of the human cytomegalovirus gene UL36, and it encodes an inhibitor of apoptosis that binds to caspase-8, blocks downstream signaling and thus contributes to viral fitness in macrophages and in vivo. Here we show a direct link between the inability of mutants lacking the M36 gene (ΔM36) to inhibit apoptosis, poor viral growth in macrophage cell cultures and viral in vivo fitness and virulence. ΔM36 grew poorly in RAG1 knockout mice and in RAG/IL-2-receptor common gamma chain double knockout mice (RAGγC−/−), but the depletion of macrophages in either mouse strain rescued the growth of ΔM36 to almost wild-type levels. This was consistent with the observation that activated macrophages were sufficient to impair ΔM36 growth in vitro. Namely, spiking fibroblast cell cultures with activated macrophages had a suppressive effect on ΔM36 growth, which could be reverted by z-VAD-fmk, a chemical apoptosis inhibitor. TNFα from activated macrophages synergized with IFNγ in target cells to inhibit ΔM36 growth. Hence, our data show that poor ΔM36 growth in macrophages does not reflect a defect in tropism, but rather a defect in the suppression of antiviral mediators secreted by macrophages. To the best of our knowledge, this shows for the first time an immune evasion mechanism that protects MCMV selectively from the antiviral activity of macrophages, and thus critically contributes to viral pathogenicity in the immunocompromised host devoid of the adaptive immune system. The majority of adult people are infected with human cytomegalovirus (CMV), but in hosts with a healthy immune system it is kept in check and does not cause disease. On the other hand, in patients suffering from innate or acquired immune deficiencies, CMV can cause severe disease or death. Infection of mice with the mouse CMV (MCMV) is an experimental model to study the biology of CMV infection, and mice that lack all of their lymphocytes are very susceptible to MCMV and die typically within three weeks of infection. In this article we show that MCMV causes disease and death in mice lacking lymphocytes because its gene M36 blocks programmed cell death, or apoptosis. MCMV lacking the M36 gene grew thousand folds less well in these mice, which significantly improved survival. This was because M36 deletion made MCMV susceptible to the action of macrophages, cells that secrete soluble factors that induce apoptosis. Importantly, viral growth and virulence of the M36-deficient MCMV could be restored by blocking apoptosis by other means, showing that the block of apoptosis was critical for viral replication. Therefore, our data imply that viral inhibition of apoptosis may be a key molecular target for antiviral strategies in immunodeficient hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda Ebermann
- Department of Vaccinology and Applied Microbiology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Zsolt Ruzsics
- Max von Pettenkofer Institute, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany
| | - Carlos A. Guzmán
- Department of Vaccinology and Applied Microbiology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Nico van Rooijen
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Vrije University, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Rosaely Casalegno-Garduño
- Department of Vaccinology and Applied Microbiology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Ulrich Koszinowski
- Max von Pettenkofer Institute, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany
| | - Luka Čičin-Šain
- Department of Vaccinology and Applied Microbiology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
- Department of Virology, Hannover School of Medicine, Hannover, Germany
- * E-mail:
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17
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Fink A, Lemmermann NAW, Gillert-Marien D, Thomas D, Freitag K, Böhm V, Wilhelmi V, Reifenberg K, Reddehase MJ, Holtappels R. Antigen presentation under the influence of 'immune evasion' proteins and its modulation by interferon-gamma: implications for immunotherapy of cytomegalovirus infection with antiviral CD8 T cells. Med Microbiol Immunol 2012; 201:513-25. [PMID: 22961126 DOI: 10.1007/s00430-012-0256-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2012] [Accepted: 08/22/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Cytomegalovirus (CMV) disease with multiple organ manifestations is the most feared viral complication limiting the success of hematopoietic cell transplantation as a therapy of hematopoietic malignancies. A timely endogenous reconstitution of CD8 T cells controls CMV infection, and adoptive transfer of antiviral CD8 T cells is a therapeutic option to prevent CMV disease by bridging the gap between an early CMV reactivation and delayed endogenous reconstitution of protective immunity. Preclinical research in murine models has provided 'proof of concept' for CD8 T-cell therapy of CMV disease. Protection by CD8 T cells appears to be in conflict with the finding that CMVs encode proteins that inhibit antigen presentation to CD8 T cells by interfering with the constitutive trafficking of peptide-loaded MHC class I molecules (pMHC-I complexes) to the cell surface. Here, we have systematically explored antigen presentation in the presence of the three currently noted immune evasion proteins of murine CMV in all possible combinations and its modulation by pre-treatment of cells with interferon-gamma (IFN-γ). The data reveal improvement in antigen processing by pre-treatment with IFN-γ can almost overrule the inhibitory function of immune evasion molecules in terms of pMHC-I expression levels capable of triggering most of the specific CD8 T cells, though the intensity of stimulation did not retrieve their full functional capacity. Notably, an in vivo conditioning of host tissue cells with IFN-γ in adoptive cell transfer recipients constitutively overexpressing IFN-γ (B6-SAP-IFN-γ mice) enhanced the antiviral efficiency of CD8 T cells in this transgenic cytoimmunotherapy model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annette Fink
- Institute for Virology, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Obere Zahlbacher Strasse 67, Hochhaus am Augustusplatz, 55131 Mainz, Germany
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18
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The cytomegaloviral protein pUL138 acts as potentiator of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor 1 surface density to enhance ULb'-encoded modulation of TNF-α signaling. J Virol 2011; 85:13260-70. [PMID: 21976655 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.06005-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Human cytomegalovirus is a ubiquitous herpesvirus that establishes lifelong latent infection. Changes in immune homeostasis induce the reactivation of lytic infection, which is mostly inapparent in healthy individuals but often causes overt disease in immunocompromised hosts. Based on discrepant tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 surface disposition between human cytomegalovirus AD169 variants differing in the ULb' region, we identified the latency-associated gene product pUL138, which also is expressed during productive infection, as a selective potentiator of tumor necrosis factor receptor 1, one of the key receptors of innate immunity. Ectopically expressed pUL138 coprecipitated with tumor necrosis factor receptor 1, extended the protein half-life, and enhanced its signaling responses, thus leading to tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 hyperresponsiveness. Conversely, the targeted deletion of UL138 from the human cytomegaloviral genome strongly reduced tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 surface densities of infected cells. Remarkably, the comparison of UL138 deficiency to ULb' deficiency revealed the presence of further positive modulators of tumor necrosis factor alpha signal transduction encoded within the human cytomegalovirus ULb' region, identifying this region as a hub for multilayered tumor necrosis factor alpha signaling regulation.
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19
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Kropp KA, Robertson KA, Sing G, Rodriguez-Martin S, Blanc M, Lacaze P, Hassim MFBN, Khondoker MR, Busche A, Dickinson P, Forster T, Strobl B, Mueller M, Jonjic S, Angulo A, Ghazal P. Reversible inhibition of murine cytomegalovirus replication by gamma interferon (IFN-γ) in primary macrophages involves a primed type I IFN-signaling subnetwork for full establishment of an immediate-early antiviral state. J Virol 2011; 85:10286-99. [PMID: 21775459 PMCID: PMC3196417 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00373-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2011] [Accepted: 07/11/2011] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Activated macrophages play a central role in controlling inflammatory responses to infection and are tightly regulated to rapidly mount responses to infectious challenge. Type I interferon (alpha/beta interferon [IFN-α/β]) and type II interferon (IFN-γ) play a crucial role in activating macrophages and subsequently restricting viral infections. Both types of IFNs signal through related but distinct signaling pathways, inducing a vast number of interferon-stimulated genes that are overlapping but distinguishable. The exact mechanism by which IFNs, particularly IFN-γ, inhibit DNA viruses such as cytomegalovirus (CMV) is still not fully understood. Here, we investigate the antiviral state developed in macrophages upon reversible inhibition of murine CMV by IFN-γ. On the basis of molecular profiling of the reversible inhibition, we identify a significant contribution of a restricted type I IFN subnetwork linked with IFN-γ activation. Genetic knockout of the type I-signaling pathway, in the context of IFN-γ stimulation, revealed an essential requirement for a primed type I-signaling process in developing a full refractory state in macrophages. A minimal transient induction of IFN-β upon macrophage activation with IFN-γ is also detectable. In dose and kinetic viral replication inhibition experiments with IFN-γ, the establishment of an antiviral effect is demonstrated to occur within the first hours of infection. We show that the inhibitory mechanisms at these very early times involve a blockade of the viral major immediate-early promoter activity. Altogether our results show that a primed type I IFN subnetwork contributes to an immediate-early antiviral state induced by type II IFN activation of macrophages, with a potential further amplification loop contributed by transient induction of IFN-β.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai A. Kropp
- Division of Pathway Medicine and Centre of Infectious Diseases, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Kevin A. Robertson
- Division of Pathway Medicine and Centre of Infectious Diseases, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Centre of Systems Biology at Edinburgh University, The King's Buildings, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Garwin Sing
- Division of Pathway Medicine and Centre of Infectious Diseases, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Sara Rodriguez-Martin
- Division of Pathway Medicine and Centre of Infectious Diseases, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Mathieu Blanc
- Division of Pathway Medicine and Centre of Infectious Diseases, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Paul Lacaze
- Division of Pathway Medicine and Centre of Infectious Diseases, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Muhamad F. B. Noor Hassim
- Division of Pathway Medicine and Centre of Infectious Diseases, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Mizanur R. Khondoker
- Division of Pathway Medicine and Centre of Infectious Diseases, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Andreas Busche
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Paul Dickinson
- Division of Pathway Medicine and Centre of Infectious Diseases, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Centre of Systems Biology at Edinburgh University, The King's Buildings, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Thorsten Forster
- Division of Pathway Medicine and Centre of Infectious Diseases, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Centre of Systems Biology at Edinburgh University, The King's Buildings, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Birgit Strobl
- Institute of Animal Breeding and Genetics, Department for Biomedical Sciences, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Mathias Mueller
- Institute of Animal Breeding and Genetics, Department for Biomedical Sciences, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Stipan Jonjic
- Department for Histology and Embryology, School of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Ana Angulo
- Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Peter Ghazal
- Division of Pathway Medicine and Centre of Infectious Diseases, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Centre of Systems Biology at Edinburgh University, The King's Buildings, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
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Absence of cross-presenting cells in the salivary gland and viral immune evasion confine cytomegalovirus immune control to effector CD4 T cells. PLoS Pathog 2011; 7:e1002214. [PMID: 21901102 PMCID: PMC3161985 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1002214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2011] [Accepted: 06/27/2011] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Horizontal transmission of cytomegaloviruses (CMV) occurs via prolonged excretion from mucosal surfaces. We used murine CMV (MCMV) infection to investigate the mechanisms of immune control in secretory organs. CD4 T cells were crucial to cease MCMV replication in the salivary gland (SG) via direct secretion of IFNγ that initiated antiviral signaling on non-hematopoietic cells. In contrast, CD4 T cell helper functions for CD8 T cells or B cells were dispensable. Despite SG-resident MCMV-specific CD8 T cells being able to produce IFNγ, the absence of MHC class I molecules on infected acinar glandular epithelial cells due to viral immune evasion, and the paucity of cross-presenting antigen presenting cells (APCs) prevented their local activation. Thus, local activation of MCMV-specific T cells is confined to the CD4 subset due to exclusive presentation of MCMV-derived antigens by MHC class II molecules on bystander APCs, resulting in IFNγ secretion interfering with viral replication in cells of non-hematopoietic origin. Cytomegaloviruses (CMVs) infect 50 to 90 % of the world's population and cause severe clinical complication in immunosuppressed individuals. An important tissue for horizontal transmission is the salivary gland (SG). CD4 T cells are crucial for viral control in this organ. However, how CD4 T cells control MCMV and why CD8 T cells, important effector cells in other organs, are inefficient in the SG, remains unclear. Here we show that CD4 T cells exert direct antiviral effector rather than helper functions by secretion of IFNγ acting on non-hematopoietic cells. Although SG-resident CD8 T cells were able to produce IFNγ and outnumbered CD4 T cells, absence of MHC class I expression on infected cells due to CMV-encoded immune evasion genes and concomitant absence of cross-presenting antigen presenting cells prohibited antigen recognition by CD8 T cells. Deletion of CMV-encoded immune evasion genes enabled CD8 T cells to control MCMV replication in the SG in absence of CD4 T cells. Hence, CMV control depends on direct antiviral functions of CD4 T cells because of exclusive MHC class II-restricted CMV antigen presentation by bystander APCs in the SG, exemplifying a strategy of effective immune evasion by which CMVs to promote their own transmission.
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Jones M, Ladell K, Wynn KK, Stacey MA, Quigley MF, Gostick E, Price DA, Humphreys IR. IL-10 restricts memory T cell inflation during cytomegalovirus infection. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2010; 185:3583-92. [PMID: 20713884 PMCID: PMC3655265 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1001535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The beta-herpesvirus CMV induces a substantial and progressive expansion of virus-specific memory CD8 T cells, which protect the host against viral reactivation from latency. In this paper, we report that this expansion, or "inflation," of memory T cells is amplified dramatically during mouse CMV infection of IL-10 knockout (IL-10(-/-)) mice. T cells from IL-10(-/-) mice were oligoclonal, exhibited a highly activated phenotype, expressed antiviral cytokines, and degranulated in response to cognate Ag encounter ex vivo. Moreover, latent viral load was reduced in IL-10(-/-) mice. Importantly, these results were recapitulated by IL-10R blockade during chronic/latent infection of wild-type mice. These data demonstrate that regulatory immune mechanisms can influence CMV-specific T cell memory and suggest a possible rationale for the acquisition of functional IL-10 orthologs by herpesviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morgan Jones
- Department of Infection, Immunity and Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Heath Park, CF14 4XN, UK
| | - Kristin Ladell
- Department of Infection, Immunity and Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Heath Park, CF14 4XN, UK
| | - Katherine K. Wynn
- Department of Infection, Immunity and Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Heath Park, CF14 4XN, UK
| | - Maria A. Stacey
- Department of Infection, Immunity and Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Heath Park, CF14 4XN, UK
| | - Máire F. Quigley
- Department of Infection, Immunity and Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Heath Park, CF14 4XN, UK
| | - Emma Gostick
- Department of Infection, Immunity and Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Heath Park, CF14 4XN, UK
| | - David A. Price
- Department of Infection, Immunity and Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Heath Park, CF14 4XN, UK
| | - Ian R. Humphreys
- Department of Infection, Immunity and Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Heath Park, CF14 4XN, UK
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Identification of Mouse Cytomegalovirus Resistance Loci by ENU Mutagenesis. Viruses 2009; 1:460-83. [PMID: 21994556 PMCID: PMC3185521 DOI: 10.3390/v1030460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2009] [Revised: 10/19/2009] [Accepted: 10/20/2009] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Host resistance to infection depends on the efficiency with which innate immune responses keep the infectious agent in check. Innate immunity encompasses components with sensing, signaling and effector properties. These elements with non-redundant functions are encoded by a set of host genes, the resistome. Here, we review our findings concerning the resistome. We have screened randomly mutagenized mice for susceptibility to a natural opportunistic pathogen, the mouse cytomegalovirus. We found that some genes with initially no obvious functions in innate immunity may be critical for host survival to infections, falling into a newly defined category of genes of the resistome.
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Park SJ, Hughes MA, Burdick M, Strieter RM, Mehrad B. Early NK cell-derived IFN-{gamma} is essential to host defense in neutropenic invasive aspergillosis. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2009; 182:4306-12. [PMID: 19299730 PMCID: PMC3030967 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.0803462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Invasive aspergillosis is among the most common human fungal infections and occurs in patients with severe and complex defects in immune responses. NK cells have previously been found to be important in host defense against this infection, but the mechanism of this effect is not known. We hypothesized that NK cells mediate their protective effect in invasive aspergillosis by acting as the major source of IFN-gamma during early infection. We found that, in the lungs of neutropenic mice with invasive aspergillosis, NK cells were the major population of cells capable of generating IFN-gamma during early infection. Depletion of NK cells resulted in reduced lung IFN-gamma levels and increased lung fungal load that was independent of T and B cell subsets. Depletion of NK cells and absence of IFN-gamma resulted in a similar increase in susceptibility to the infection, but depletion of NK cells in IFN-gamma-deficient hosts did not result in further increase in severity of the infection. NK cell-derived IFN-gamma caused enhanced macrophage antimicrobial effects in vitro and also resulted in greater expression of IFN-inducible chemokines in the lungs. Finally, transfer of activated NK cells from wild-type, but not IFN-gamma-deficient hosts, resulted in greater pathogen clearance from the lungs of both IFN-gamma-deficient and wild-type recipients. Taken together, these data indicate that NK cells are the main source of early IFN-gamma in the lungs in neutropenic invasive aspergillosis, and this is an important mechanism in the defense against this infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stacy J. Park
- Department of Microbiology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908
| | - Molly A. Hughes
- Divisions of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908
| | - Marie Burdick
- Divisions of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908
| | - Robert M. Strieter
- Divisions of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908
| | - Borna Mehrad
- Department of Microbiology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908
- Divisions of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908
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Fodil-Cornu N, Lee SH, Belanger S, Makrigiannis AP, Biron CA, Buller RM, Vidal SM. Ly49h-deficient C57BL/6 mice: a new mouse cytomegalovirus-susceptible model remains resistant to unrelated pathogens controlled by the NK gene complex. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2009; 181:6394-405. [PMID: 18941230 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.181.9.6394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Cmv1 was the first mouse cytomegalovirus (MCMV) resistance locus identified in C57BL/6 mice. It encodes Ly49H, a NK cell-activating receptor that specifically recognizes the m157 viral protein at the surface of MCMV-infected cells. To dissect the effect of the Ly49h gene in host-pathogen interactions, we generated C57BL/6 mice lacking the Ly49h region. We found that 36 h after MCMV infection, the lack of Ly49h resulted in high viral replication in the spleen and dramatically enhanced proinflammatory cytokine production in the serum and spleen. At later points in time, we observed that MCMV induced a drastic loss in CD8(+) T cells in B6.Ly49h(-/-) mice, probably reflecting severe histological changes in the spleen. Overall, our results indicate that Ly49H(+) NK cells contain a systemic production of cytokines that may contribute to the MCMV-induced pathology and play a central role in maintaining normal spleen cell microarchitecture. Finally, we tested the ability of B6.Ly49h(-/-) mice to control replication of Leishmania major and ectromelia virus. Resistance to these pathogens has been previously mapped within the NK gene complex. We found that the lack of Ly49H(+) NK cells is not associated with an altered resistance to L. major. In contrast, absence of Ly49H(+) NK cells seems to afford additional protection against ectromelia infection in C57BL/6 mice, suggesting that Ly49H may recognize ectromelia-infected cells with detrimental effects. Taken together, these results confirm the pivotal role of the Ly49H receptor during MCMV infection and open the way for further investigations in host-pathogen interactions.
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The addition of tumor necrosis factor plus beta interferon induces a novel synergistic antiviral state against poxviruses in primary human fibroblasts. J Virol 2008; 83:498-511. [PMID: 18971273 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01376-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and members of the interferon (IFN) family have been shown to independently inhibit the replication of a variety of viruses. In addition, previous reports have shown that treatment with various combinations of these antiviral cytokines induces a synergistic antiviral state that can be significantly more potent than addition of any of these cytokines alone. The mechanism of this cytokine synergy and its effects on global gene expression, however, are not well characterized. Here, we use DNA microarray analysis to demonstrate that treatment of uninfected primary human fibroblasts with TNF plus IFN-beta induces a distinct synergistic state characterized by significant perturbations of several hundred genes which are coinduced by the individual cytokines alone, as well as the induction of more than 850 novel host cell genes. This synergy is mediated directly by the two ligands, not by intermediate secreted factors, and is necessary and sufficient to completely block the productive replication and spread of myxoma virus in human fibroblasts. In contrast, the replication of two other poxviruses, vaccinia virus and tanapox virus, are only partially inhibited in these cells by the synergistic antiviral state, whereas the spread of both of these viruses to neighboring cells was efficiently blocked. Taken together, our data indicate that the combination of TNF and IFN-beta induces a novel synergistic antiviral state that is highly distinct from that induced by either cytokine alone.
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26
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Le VTK, Trilling M, Wilborn M, Hengel H, Zimmermann A. Human cytomegalovirus interferes with signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) 2 protein stability and tyrosine phosphorylation. J Gen Virol 2008; 89:2416-2426. [PMID: 18796709 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.2008/001669-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
We have investigated the role of signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) 2 during human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) replication and found that protein levels of STAT2 are downregulated. STAT2 downregulation was observed in HCMV clinical isolates and laboratory strains with the exception of strain Towne. The HCMV-induced loss of STAT2 protein occurred despite an increased accumulation of STAT2 mRNA; it required HCMV early gene expression. The decrease in STAT2 was sensitive to proteasome inhibition, suggesting degradation of STAT2 via the ubiquitin proteasome pathway. Notably, pUL27, the HCMV homologue of the mouse CMV pM27 protein, which mediates the selective proteolysis of STAT2, did not induce STAT2 downregulation. Moreover, preceding STAT2 degradation, alpha/beta interferon (IFN)-receptor-mediated tyrosine phosphorylation of STAT2 was inhibited in HCMV-infected cells. This effect was paralleled by impaired tyrosine activation of STAT1 and STAT3. Accordingly, IFNs affected the replication efficiency of STAT2 degrading and non-degrading HCMV strains to a similar degree. In summary, HCMV abrogates IFN receptor signalling at multiple checkpoints by independent mechanisms including UL27-independent degradation of STAT2 and a preceding blockade of STAT2 phosphorylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vu Thuy Khanh Le
- Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, Institut für Virologie, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Mirko Trilling
- Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, Institut für Virologie, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Manuel Wilborn
- Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, Institut für Virologie, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Hartmut Hengel
- Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, Institut für Virologie, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Albert Zimmermann
- Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, Institut für Virologie, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
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27
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Bantug GRB, Cekinovic D, Bradford R, Koontz T, Jonjic S, Britt WJ. CD8+ T lymphocytes control murine cytomegalovirus replication in the central nervous system of newborn animals. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2008; 181:2111-23. [PMID: 18641350 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.181.3.2111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Human CMV infection of the neonatal CNS results in long-term neurologic sequelae. To define the pathogenesis of fetal human CMV CNS infections, we investigated mechanisms of virus clearance from the CNS of neonatal BALB/c mice infected with murine CMV (MCMV). Virus titers peaked in the CNS between postnatal days 10-14 and infectious virus was undetectable by postnatal day 21. Congruent with virus clearance was the recruitment of CD8(+) T cells into the CNS. Depletion of CD8(+) T cells resulted in death by postnatal day 15 in MCMV-infected animals and increased viral loads in the liver, spleen, and the CNS, suggesting an important role for these cells in the control of MCMV replication in the newborn brain. Examination of brain mononuclear cells revealed that CD8(+) T cell infiltrates expressed high levels of CD69, CD44, and CD49d. IE1(168)-specific CD8(+) T cells accumulated in the CNS and produced IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha but not IL-2 following peptide stimulation. Moreover, adoptive transfer of brain mononuclear cells resulted in decreased virus burden in immunodepleted MCMV-infected syngeneic mice. Depletion of the CD8(+) cell population following transfer eliminated control of virus replication. In summary, these results show that functionally mature virus-specific CD8(+) T cells are recruited to the CNS in mice infected with MCMV as neonates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Glenn R B Bantug
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Alabama 35294, USA
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28
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Tumor necrosis factor and interferon: cytokines in harmony. Curr Opin Microbiol 2008; 11:378-83. [PMID: 18595771 PMCID: PMC7108444 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2008.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2008] [Accepted: 05/26/2008] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Individually, tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and the various interferons frequently display strong antiviral activities. Certain combinations of these cytokines, however, induce a synergistic antiviral state which is distinct from that induced by either one alone. This novel synergistic antiviral state likely occurs through several possible mechanisms, involves multiple signaling pathways, and inhibits a wider range of viruses than the individual cytokines alone. While underappreciated when first discovered, this synergistic phenomenon is proving to be of a much broader scope than initially thought. More work is needed to refine our understanding of this observation and its physiological implications for anti-pathogen responses.
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29
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Davis AM, Hagan KA, Matthews LA, Bajwa G, Gill MA, Gale M, Farrar JD. Blockade of virus infection by human CD4+ T cells via a cytokine relay network. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2008; 180:6923-32. [PMID: 18453613 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.180.10.6923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
CD4(+) T cells directly participate in bacterial clearance through secretion of proinflammatory cytokines. Although viral clearance relies heavily on CD8(+) T cell functions, we sought to determine whether human CD4(+) T cells could also directly influence viral clearance through cytokine secretion. We found that IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha, secreted by IL-12-polarized Th1 cells, displayed potent antiviral effects against a variety of viruses. IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha acted directly to inhibit hepatitis C virus replication in an in vitro replicon system, and neutralization of both cytokines was required to block the antiviral activity that was secreted by Th1 cells. IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha also exerted antiviral effects against vesicular stomatitis virus infection, but in this case, functional type I IFN receptor activity was required. Thus, in cases of vesicular stomatitis virus infection, the combination of IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha secreted by human Th1 cells acted indirectly through the IFN-alpha/beta receptor. These results highlight the importance of CD4(+) T cells in directly regulating antiviral responses through proinflammatory cytokines acting in both a direct and indirect manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann M Davis
- Department of Immunology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390-9093, USA
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30
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Campbell AE, Cavanaugh VJ, Slater JS. The salivary glands as a privileged site of cytomegalovirus immune evasion and persistence. Med Microbiol Immunol 2008; 197:205-213. [PMID: 18259775 DOI: 10.1007/s00430-008-0077-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2007] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The salivary glands (SG) provide a haven for persistent cytomegalovirus replication, and in this regard are a privileged site of virus immune evasion. The murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) model has provided insight into the immunological environment of the SG and the unqiue virus-host relationship of this organ. In response to MCMV infection, a robust T cell-mediated immune response is elicited, comprised predominantly of CD8+ T cells that phenotypically and functionally appear activated. However, they fail to clear virus by an unknown evasion mechanism that is independent of inhibitory NKG2A- or Programmed Death 1-mediated signaling. Virus is eventually eliminated from the SG by effector CD4+ T cells expressing antiviral cytokines. However, this mechanism is severely dampened by high levels of the immunosuppressive cytokine IL-10, selectively expressed by SG CD4+ T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann E Campbell
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Cell Biology, Eastern Virginia Medical School, 700 W. Olney Road, Norfolk, VA 23507, USA.
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31
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Li J, Wasmuth S, Bauer D, Baehler H, Hennig M, Heiligenhaus A. Subconjunctival antisense oligonucleotides targeting TNF-alpha influence immunopathology and viral replication in murine HSV-1 retinitis. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 2008; 246:1265-73. [PMID: 18491128 DOI: 10.1007/s00417-008-0839-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2007] [Revised: 02/27/2008] [Accepted: 03/31/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND To investigate the role of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) in immunopathology and viral replication in the contralateral eye in the von Szily model of herpes simplex virus (HSV)-1 acute retinitis. METHODS In vivo distribution was analyzed after subconjunctival injection of FITC-labeled antisense oligonucleotides (ASON). After HSV-1 (KOS) was injected in the right anterior chamber (AC) in BALB/c mice, the course of the contralateral retinitis was evaluated. The left eyes were treated with either TNF-alpha ASON, sequence-unspecific control (CON), or buffer. The ocular TNF-alpha content was quantified by ELISA. The delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) reaction, uptake of [3H]thymidine from regional lymph nodes (rln)- and spleen cells, serum-neutralizing antibodies, and viral titer in the eyes were evaluated. RESULTS After subconjunctival injection, FITC-labeled ASON were found in the choroid and retina. In the TNF-alpha ASON-treated eyes, TNF-alpha expression and the incidence and severity of retinitis were reduced on day 8 postinfection (PI) (p < 0.05). On day 10 PI, higher viral titers were only seen in the eyes of the TNF-alpha ASON group (p < 0.05), and retinitis was slightly more severe on day 12 PI. While the HSV-1 specific [3H]thymidine uptake from rln cells was higher in the TNF-alpha ASON mice (p < 0.05), the [3H]thymidine uptake from spleen cells, the DTH response, and the neutralizing-antibody titers did not differ between the groups. CONCLUSIONS After regional blockade of TNF-alpha in experimental HSV-1 retinitis TNF-alpha seems to possess an antiviral capacity against HSV-1 in the contralateral eye and participates in the immunopathology of HSV-1-induced acute retinitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Li
- Department of Ophthalmology, Ophtha-Lab at St. Franziskus Hospital, Hohenzollernring 74, 48145 Muenster, Germany
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32
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Kuo CP, Wu CL, Ho HT, Chen C, Liu SI, Lu YT. Detection of cytomegalovirus reactivation in cancer patients receiving chemotherapy. Clin Microbiol Infect 2008; 14:221-7. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2007.01895.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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Humphreys IR, de Trez C, Kinkade A, Benedict CA, Croft M, Ware CF. Cytomegalovirus exploits IL-10-mediated immune regulation in the salivary glands. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007; 204:1217-25. [PMID: 17485516 PMCID: PMC2118568 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20062424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The salivary glands represent a major site of cytomegalovirus replication and transmission to other hosts. Despite control of viral infection by strong T cell responses in visceral organs cytomegalovirus replication continues in the salivary glands of mice, suggesting that the virus exploits the mucosal microenvironment. Here, we show that T cell immunity in the salivary glands is limited by the induction of CD4 T cells expressing the regulatory cytokine interleukin (IL)-10. Blockade of IL-10 receptor (IL-10R) with an antagonist antibody dramatically reduced viral load in the salivary glands, but not in the spleen. The mucosa-specific protection afforded by IL-10R blockade was associated with an increased accumulation of CD4 T cells expressing interferon γ, suggesting that IL-10R signaling limits effector T cell differentiation. Consistent with this, an agonist antibody targeting the tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member OX40 (TNFRSF4) enhanced effector T cell differentiation and increased the number of interferon γ–producing T cells, thus limiting virus replication in the salivary glands. Collectively, the results indicate that modulating effector T cell differentiation can counteract pathogen exploitation of the mucosa, thus limiting persistent virus replication and transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian R Humphreys
- Division of Molecular Immunology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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34
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Simon CO, Holtappels R, Tervo HM, Böhm V, Däubner T, Oehrlein-Karpi SA, Kühnapfel B, Renzaho A, Strand D, Podlech J, Reddehase MJ, Grzimek NKA. CD8 T cells control cytomegalovirus latency by epitope-specific sensing of transcriptional reactivation. J Virol 2006; 80:10436-56. [PMID: 16928768 PMCID: PMC1641801 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01248-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 155] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
During murine cytomegalovirus (mCMV) latency in the lungs, most of the viral genomes are transcriptionally silent at the major immediate-early locus, but rare and stochastic episodes of desilencing lead to the expression of IE1 transcripts. This low-frequency but perpetual expression is accompanied by an activation of lung-resident effector-memory CD8 T cells specific for the antigenic peptide 168-YPHFMPTNL-176, which is derived from the IE1 protein. These molecular and immunological findings were combined in the "silencing/desilencing and immune sensing hypothesis" of cytomegalovirus latency and reactivation. This hypothesis proposes that IE1 gene expression proceeds to cell surface presentation of the IE1 peptide by the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecule L(d) and that its recognition by CD8 T cells terminates virus reactivation. Here we provide experimental evidence in support of this hypothesis. We generated mutant virus mCMV-IE1-L176A, in which the antigenic IE1 peptide is functionally deleted by a point mutation of the C-terminal MHC class I anchor residue Leu into Ala. Two revertant viruses, mCMV-IE1-A176L and the wobble nucleotide-marked mCMV-IE1-A176L*, in which Leu is restored by back-mutation of Ala codon GCA into Leu codons CTA and CTT, respectively, were constructed. Pulmonary latency of the mutant virus was found to be associated with an increased prevalence of IE1 transcription and with events of IE3 transactivator splicing. In conclusion, IE1-specific CD8 T cells recognize and terminate virus reactivation in vivo at the first opportunity in the reactivated gene expression program. The perpetual gene expression and antigen presentation might represent the driving molecular force in CMV-associated immunosenescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian O Simon
- Institute for Virology, Johannes Gutenberg-University, Hochhaus am Augustusplatz, 55101 Mainz, Germany
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35
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Granja AG, Nogal ML, Hurtado C, Del Aguila C, Carrascosa AL, Salas ML, Fresno M, Revilla Y. The viral protein A238L inhibits TNF-alpha expression through a CBP/p300 transcriptional coactivators pathway. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2006; 176:451-62. [PMID: 16365438 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.176.1.451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
African swine fever virus (ASFV) is able to inhibit TNF-alpha-induced gene expression through the synthesis of A238L protein. This was shown by the use of deletion mutants lacking the A238L gene from the Vero cell-adapted Ba71V ASFV strain and from the virulent isolate E70. To further analyze the molecular mechanism by which the viral gene controls TNF-alpha, we have used Jurkat cells stably transfected with the viral gene to identify the TNF-alpha regulatory elements involved in the induction of the gene after stimulation with PMA and calcium ionophore. We have thus identified the cAMP-responsive element and kappa3 sites on the TNF-alpha promoter as the responsible of the gene activation, and demonstrate that A238L inhibits TNF-alpha expression through these DNA binding sites. This inhibition was partially reverted by overexpression of the transcriptional factors NF-AT, NF-kappaB, and c-Jun. Furthermore, we present evidence that A238L inhibits the activation of TNF-alpha by modulating NF-kappaB, NF-AT, and c-Jun trans activation through a mechanism that involves CREB binding protein/p300 function, because overexpression of these transcriptional coactivators recovers TNF-alpha promoter activity. In addition, we show that A238L is a nuclear protein that binds to the cyclic AMP-responsive element/kappa3 complex, thus displacing the CREB binding protein/p300 coactivators. Taken together, these results establish a novel mechanism in the control of TNF-alpha gene expression by a viral protein that could represent an efficient strategy used by ASFV to evade the innate immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aitor G Granja
- Centro de Biología Molecular "Severo Ochoa" (Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas-Universidad Autónoma de Madrid), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
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36
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Millonig G, Kern M, Ludwiczek O, Nachbaur K, Vogel W. Subfulminant hepatitis B after infliximab in Crohn’s disease: Need for HBV-screening? World J Gastroenterol 2006; 12:974-6. [PMID: 16521231 PMCID: PMC4066168 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v12.i6.974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Infections are a major adverse effect during the treatment with anti-TNF-α. While exclusion of any bacterial infection and screening for tuberculosis are mandatory before initiating a therapy with anti-TNF- α-antibodies, there are no guidelines whether to screen for or how to deal with chronic viral infections such as hepatitis B. In this case report, we have described a patient with Crohn's disease who developed subfulminant hepatitis B after the fourth infusion of infliximab due to an unrecognized HBs-antigen carrier state. He recovered completely after lamivudine therapy was started, but this severe adverse event could have been prevented if screening for HBV and pre-emptive therapy with lamivudine would have been started prior to infliximab. We therefore strongly argue in favor of extended screening recommendations for infectious diseases including viral infections before considering a therapy with infliximab.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gunda Millonig
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Anichstrasse 35, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria.
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Iversen AC, Norris PS, Ware CF, Benedict CA. Human NK Cells Inhibit Cytomegalovirus Replication through a Noncytolytic Mechanism Involving Lymphotoxin-Dependent Induction of IFN-β. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2005; 175:7568-74. [PMID: 16301666 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.175.11.7568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
NK cells play a key role in host defense against the beta-herpesvirus CMV through perforin-dependent cytolysis. In this study, we show that human NK cells can also control human CMV (HCMV) infection by a noncytolytic mechanism involving induction of IFN-beta in the virus-infected cell. Both IL-2-activated primary NK cells and an IL-2-dependent NK cell line (NK-92) exhibited potent, noncytolytic anti-HCMV activity at very low E:T cell ratios (<0.1:1). Activated NK cells expressed lymphotoxin (LT)alphabeta on their cell surface, and secreted LTalpha and TNF, all of which contributed to the NF-kappaB-dependent release of IFN-beta from infected fibroblasts. IFN-beta produced by fibroblasts and NK cell-produced IFN-gamma combined to inhibit HCMV replication after immediate early gene expression. These results highlight an efficient mechanism used by NK cells to activate IFN-beta expression in the infected target cell that contributes to the arrest of virion production and virus spread without cellular elimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann-Charlotte Iversen
- Division of Molecular Immunology, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, San Diego, CA 92121, USA
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38
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Kučić N, Mahmutefendić H, Lučin P. Inhibition of protein kinases C prevents murine cytomegalovirus replication. J Gen Virol 2005; 86:2153-2161. [PMID: 16033962 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.80733-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
For successful establishment of infection and initiation of the replication cycle, murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) utilizes cellular structures and functions, including cell-membrane penetration, capsid dismantling and cytosolic transport of viral DNA into the nucleus. These early events of MCMV infections are dependent on cellular regulatory mechanisms, primarily protein phosphorylation. In the present study, protein kinase inhibitors were used to explore the role of protein phosphorylation mediated by protein kinases C (PKCs) in the very early events of MCMV infection. Inhibitory effects were determined by immunofluorescence and Western blot analysis of MCMV IE1 and E1 protein expression and by production of infectious virions in cell culture. It was found that H-7, a broadly specific inhibitor of cellular protein kinases, prevented virus replication in a dose-dependent and reversible manner, and that the block in replication occurred very early in infection. More specific PKC inhibitors (sangivamycin, calphostin C and bisindolylmaleimide II), Ca(2+)/calmodulin inhibitors (EDTA and W7) and phorbol esters (PMA) were used to dissect PKC-subclass contribution in the very early events of MCMV replication. The results indicate that the role of diacylglycerol/phorbol ester-dependent but calcium-independent PKCs is essential for establishment of MCMV infection in the host cell, starting at a very early stage of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Kučić
- Department of Physiology and Immunology, Medical Faculty, University of Rijeka, Braće Branchetta 20, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Hana Mahmutefendić
- Department of Physiology and Immunology, Medical Faculty, University of Rijeka, Braće Branchetta 20, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Pero Lučin
- Department of Physiology and Immunology, Medical Faculty, University of Rijeka, Braće Branchetta 20, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia
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39
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Hart OM, Athie-Morales V, O'Connor GM, Gardiner CM. TLR7/8-Mediated Activation of Human NK Cells Results in Accessory Cell-Dependent IFN-γ Production. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2005; 175:1636-42. [PMID: 16034103 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.175.3.1636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 228] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
NK cells express receptors that allow them to recognize pathogens and activate effector functions such as cytotoxicity and cytokine production. Among these receptors are the recently identified TLRs that recognize conserved pathogen structures and initiate innate immune responses. We demonstrate that human NK cells express TLR3, TLR7, and TLR8 and that these receptors are functional. TLR3 is expressed at the cell surface where it functions as a receptor for polyinosinic acid:cytidylic acid (poly(I:C)) in a lysosomal-independent manner. TLR7/8 signaling is sensitive to chloroquine inhibition, indicating a requirement for lysosomal signaling as for other cell types. Both R848, an agonist of human TLR7 and TLR8, and poly(I:C) activate NK cell cytotoxicity against Daudi target cells. However, IFN-gamma production is differentially regulated by these TLR agonists. In contrast to poly(I:C), R848 stimulates significant IFN-gamma production by NK cells. This is accessory cell dependent and is inhibited by addition of a neutralizing anti-IL-12 Ab. Moreover, stimulation of purified monocyte populations with R848 results in IL-12 production, and reconstitution of purified NK cells with monocytes results in increased IFN-gamma production in response to R848. In addition, we demonstrate that while resting NK cells do not transduce signals directly in response to R848, they can be primed to do so by prior exposure to either IL-2 or IFN-alpha. Therefore, although NK cells can be directly activated by TLRs, accessory cells play an important and sometimes essential role in the activation of effector functions such as IFN-gamma production and cytotoxicity.
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MESH Headings
- Antigen-Presenting Cells/immunology
- Cell Line
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Cells, Cultured
- Humans
- Imidazoles/pharmacology
- Interferon-gamma/biosynthesis
- Interleukin-12/physiology
- Killer Cells, Natural/drug effects
- Killer Cells, Natural/immunology
- Killer Cells, Natural/metabolism
- Lymphocyte Activation/drug effects
- Lymphocyte Activation/immunology
- Lysosomes/metabolism
- Lysosomes/physiology
- Membrane Glycoproteins/agonists
- Membrane Glycoproteins/biosynthesis
- Membrane Glycoproteins/physiology
- Natural Cytotoxicity Triggering Receptor 1
- Natural Cytotoxicity Triggering Receptor 2
- Natural Cytotoxicity Triggering Receptor 3
- Poly I-C/pharmacology
- Receptors, Cell Surface/agonists
- Receptors, Cell Surface/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Cell Surface/physiology
- Receptors, Immunologic/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Natural Killer Cell
- Signal Transduction/immunology
- Toll-Like Receptor 3
- Toll-Like Receptor 7
- Toll-Like Receptor 8
- Toll-Like Receptors
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Affiliation(s)
- Orla M Hart
- Department of Biochemistry, Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland
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40
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Halford WP, Maender JL, Gebhardt BM. Re-evaluating the role of natural killer cells in innate resistance to herpes simplex virus type 1. Virol J 2005; 2:56. [PMID: 16022737 PMCID: PMC1188082 DOI: 10.1186/1743-422x-2-56] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2005] [Accepted: 07/17/2005] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Interferon-γ acts to multiply the potency with which innate interferons (α/β) suppress herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) replication. Recent evidence suggests that this interaction is functionally relevant in host defense against HSV-1. However, it is not clear which WBCs of the innate immune system, if any, limit HSV-1 spread in an IFN-γ dependent manner. The current study was initiated to determine if natural killer (NK) cells provide innate resistance to HSV-1 infection, and if so to determine if this resistance is IFN-γ-dependent. Results Lymphocyte-deficient scid or rag2-/- mice were used to test four predictions of the central hypothesis, and thus determine if innate resistance to HSV-1 is dependent on 1. NK cell cytotoxicity, 2. NK cells, 3. WBCs, or 4. the IFN-activated transcription factor, Stat 1. Loss of NK cell cytotoxic function or depletion of NK cells had no effect on the progression of HSV-1 infection in scid mice. In contrast, viral spread and pathogenesis developed much more rapidly in scid mice depleted of WBCs. Likewise, loss of Stat 1 function profoundly impaired the innate resistance of rag2-/- mice to HSV-1. Conclusion Lymphocyte-deficient mice possess a very tangible innate resistance to HSV-1 infection, but this resistance is not dependent upon NK cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- William P Halford
- Dept of Veterinary Molecular Biology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA
| | | | - Bryan M Gebhardt
- Dept of Ophthalmology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA USA
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41
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Hengel H, Koszinowski UH, Conzelmann KK. Viruses know it all: new insights into IFN networks. Trends Immunol 2005; 26:396-401. [PMID: 15922665 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2005.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2005] [Revised: 04/22/2005] [Accepted: 05/16/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Co-evolution of viruses with their hosts for millions of years has led to a host immune system of high complexity and, likewise, sophisticated viral mechanisms to antagonize immunity. Early cytokines, such as interferons (IFNs), which integrate innate and adaptive immune responses, are essential targets for viruses. Viral antagonists that interfere with numerous components of the IFN system provide superb tools to explore the pathways and the connectivity of the IFN network. Here, the inhibition of type I IFN production by negative strand RNA viruses and IFN signaling by cytomegalovirus are discussed, illustrating unappreciated links between type I and type II IFN signaling. Viral principles might pave the way to develop new therapeutics to modulate immune functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hartmut Hengel
- Institute for Virology, Heinrich-Heine-University, Moorenstrasse 5, D-40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
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42
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Zimmermann A, Trilling M, Wagner M, Wilborn M, Bubic I, Jonjic S, Koszinowski U, Hengel H. A cytomegaloviral protein reveals a dual role for STAT2 in IFN-{gamma} signaling and antiviral responses. J Exp Med 2005; 201:1543-53. [PMID: 15883169 PMCID: PMC2212917 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20041401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2004] [Accepted: 03/25/2005] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
A mouse cytomegalovirus (MCMV) gene conferring interferon (IFN) resistance was identified. This gene, M27, encodes a 79-kD protein that selectively binds and down-regulates for signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT)-2, but it has no effect on STAT1 activation and signaling. The absence of pM27 conferred MCMV susceptibility to type I IFNs (alpha/beta), but it had a much more dramatic effect on type II IFNs (gamma) in vitro and in vivo. A comparative analysis of M27(+) and M27(-) MCMV revealed that the antiviral efficiency of IFN-gamma was partially dependent on the synergistic action of type I IFNs that required STAT2. Moreover, STAT2 was directly activated by IFN-gamma. This effect required IFN receptor expression and was independent of type I IFNs. IFN-gamma induced increasing levels of tyrosine-phosphorylated STAT2 in M27(-) MCMV-infected cells that were essential for the antiviral potency of IFN-gamma. pM27 represents a new strategy for simultaneous evasions from types I and II IFNs, and it documents an unknown biological significance for STAT2 in antiviral IFN-gamma responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Albert Zimmermann
- Institut für Virologie, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
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43
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Andrews DM, Andoniou CE, Scalzo AA, van Dommelen SLH, Wallace ME, Smyth MJ, Degli-Esposti MA. Cross-talk between dendritic cells and natural killer cells in viral infection. Mol Immunol 2005; 42:547-55. [PMID: 15607812 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2004.07.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DC), first characterized in 1973 by Steinman and Cohn, have been defined as the professional antigen presenting cells (APC), capable of activating naïve T cells much more efficiently than either B cells or macrophages. DC also capture and process antigen more efficiently than other APC, and offer MHC-antigen complexes to T cells at higher densities, and in the context of larger amounts of co-stimulatory molecules (i.e. CD40, CD80 and CD86) at the T cell-DC synapse. Although historically, the principal function of DC is the priming of naïve T cells, more recently they have also been shown to affect the functions of natural killer (NK) cells. Interactions between DC and NK cells may be critical in situations where immune surveillance requires efficient early activation of NK cells, as is the case during infections. This review aims to summarise the interactions that occur between DC and NK cells during viral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel M Andrews
- Immunology and Virology Program, Centre for Ophthalmology and Visual Science, The University of Western Australia, WA 6009, Australia
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44
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Halford WP, Halford KJ, Pierce AT. Mathematical analysis demonstrates that interferons-beta and -gamma interact in a multiplicative manner to disrupt herpes simplex virus replication. J Theor Biol 2005; 234:439-54. [PMID: 15784277 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2004.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2004] [Revised: 11/10/2004] [Accepted: 12/06/2004] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Several studies suggest that the innate interferons (IFNs), IFN-alpha and IFN-beta, can act in concert with IFN-gamma to synergistically inhibit the replication of cytomegalovirus and herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1). The significance of this observation is not yet agreed upon in large part because the nature and magnitude of the interaction between IFN-alpha/beta and IFN-gamma is not well defined. In the current study, we resolve this issue by demonstrating three points. First, the hyperbolic tangent function, tanh (x), can be used to describe the individual effects of IFN-beta or IFN-gamma on HSV-1 replication over a 320,000-fold range of IFN concentration. Second, pharmacological methods prove that IFN-beta and IFN-gamma interact in a greater-than-additive manner to inhibit HSV-1 replication. Finally, the potency with which combinations of IFN-beta and IFN-gamma inhibit HSV-1 replication is accurately predicted by multiplying the individual inhibitory effects of each cytokine. Thus, IFN-beta and IFN-gamma interact in a multiplicative manner. We infer that a primary antiviral function of IFN-gamma lies in its capacity to multiply the potency with which IFN-alpha/beta restricts HSV-1 replication in vivo. This hypothesis has important ramifications for understanding how T lymphocyte-secreted cytokines such as IFN-gamma can force herpesviruses into a latent state without destroying the neurons or leukocytes that continue to harbor these viral infections for the lifetime of the host.
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Affiliation(s)
- William P Halford
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA.
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45
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Loh J, Chu DT, O'Guin AK, Yokoyama WM, Virgin HW. Natural killer cells utilize both perforin and gamma interferon to regulate murine cytomegalovirus infection in the spleen and liver. J Virol 2005; 79:661-7. [PMID: 15596864 PMCID: PMC538682 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.79.1.661-667.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells are critical for innate regulation of the acute phase of murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) infection and have been reported to utilize perforin (Pfp)- and gamma interferon (IFN-gamma)-dependent effector mechanisms in an organ-specific manner to regulate MCMV infection in the spleen and liver. In this study, we further examined the roles of NK cells, Pfp, and IFN-gamma in innate immunity to MCMV infection. With the recently described NK cell-deficient (NKD) mouse, we confirmed previous findings that NK cells, but not NKT cells, are required for control of the acute phase of MCMV infection in spleen and liver cells. Interestingly, we found that Pfp and IFN-gamma are each important for regulating MCMV replication in both the spleen and the liver. Moreover, NK cells can regulate MCMV infection in the spleens and livers of Pfp(-/-) mice in a Pfp-independent manner and can use an IFN-gamma-independent mechanism to control MCMV infection in IFN-gamma(-/-) mice. Thus, contrary to previous reports, NK cells utilize both Pfp and IFN-gamma to control MCMV infection in the spleen and liver.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joy Loh
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, USA.
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46
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Simon CO, Seckert CK, Dreis D, Reddehase MJ, Grzimek NKA. Role for tumor necrosis factor alpha in murine cytomegalovirus transcriptional reactivation in latently infected lungs. J Virol 2005; 79:326-40. [PMID: 15596827 PMCID: PMC538715 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.79.1.326-340.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Interstitial pneumonia is a major clinical manifestation of primary or recurrent cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection in immunocompromised recipients of a bone marrow transplant. In a murine model, lungs were identified as a prominent site of CMV latency and recurrence. Pulmonary latency of murine CMV is characterized by high viral genome burden and a low incidence of variegated immediate-early (IE) gene expression, reflecting a sporadic activity of the major IE promoters (MIEPs) and enhancer. The enhancer-flanking promoters MIEP1/3 and MIEP2 are switched on and off during latency in a ratio of approximately 2:1. MIEP1/3 latency-associated activity generates the IE1 transcript of the ie1/3 transcription unit but not the alternative splicing product IE3 that encodes the essential transactivator of early gene expression. Splicing thus appeared to be an important checkpoint for maintenance of latency. In accordance with previous work of others, we show here that signaling by the proinflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) activates IE1/3 transcription in vivo. As an addition to current knowledge, Poisson distribution analysis revealed an increased incidence of IE1/3 transcriptional events as well as a higher amount of transcripts per event. Notably, TNF-alpha promoted the splicing to IE3 transcripts, but transcription did not proceed to the M55/gB early gene. Moreover, the activated transcriptional state induced by TNF-alpha did not predispose latently infected mice to a higher incidence of virus recurrence after hematoablative treatment. In conclusion, TNF-alpha is an important inductor of IE gene transcriptional reactivation, whereas early genes downstream in the viral replicative cycle appear to be the rate-limiting checkpoint(s) for virus recurrence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian O Simon
- Institute for Virology, Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany
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47
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Vliegen I, Duijvestijn A, Stassen F, Bruggeman C. Murine cytomegalovirus infection directs macrophage differentiation into a pro-inflammatory immune phenotype: implications for atherogenesis. Microbes Infect 2004; 6:1056-62. [PMID: 15380774 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2004.05.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2004] [Accepted: 05/28/2004] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
We have previously demonstrated that mouse cytomegalovirus (MCMV) aggravates atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E knockout (apoE(-/-)) mice, most likely by enhancing both systemic and local (e.g. in the vascular wall) cytokine production. However, until now it was unclear which cell type is responsible for this enhanced pro-inflammatory cytokine production. In this study we focused on the macrophage (mPhi), which besides being an important source of such cytokines, is known to be an important player in both atherosclerosis and viral clearance. We investigated whether MCMV could induce a pro-inflammatory immune mPhi phenotype, which ultimately may contribute to the development of atherosclerosis. To this end, peritoneal exudate cells (PEC) were elicited in apoE(-/-) mice by either MCMV or thioglycolate injection, and mPhi were phenotyped at 1 week post-intraperitoneal injection. MCMV-induced peritoneal mPhi contained MCMV DNA but had limited MCMV mRNA expression, indicating latent infection. These mPhi showed increased production of interferon-gamma (IFNgamma), exclusive production of interleukin-18 (IL-18) and increased expression of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II, CD40, CD80 and CD86, when compared with thioglycolate-induced mPhi. From these results, we conclude that intraperitoneal injection of MCMV induces an immune-responsive exudate in which at 7 days post-infection, MCMV-infected mPhi express a pro-inflammatory immune phenotype. As such, the MCMV-induced mPhi may be an important player in aggravating atherosclerosis through systemic and/or local immune activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inge Vliegen
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Hospital Maastricht, P. Debyelaan 25, P.O. Box 5800, 6202 AZ Maastricht, The Netherlands.
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48
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Atrasheuskaya AV, Bukin EK, Fredeking TM, Ignatyev GM. Protective effect of exogenous recombinant mouse interferon-gamma and tumour necrosis factor-alpha on ectromelia virus infection in susceptible BALB/c mice. Clin Exp Immunol 2004; 136:207-14. [PMID: 15086382 PMCID: PMC1809029 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.2004.02460.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The resistance to mousepox is correlated with the production of type I cytokines: interleukin (IL)-2, IL-12, interferon (IFN)-gamma and tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha. We intend to describe the modulation of generalized ectromelia virus (EV) infection with exogenous administration of mrIFN-gamma and mrTNF-alpha separately and in combination using susceptible BALB/c mice. The treatment schemes presented resulted in the localization of the generalized EV infection and its development into non-fatal sloughing of the infected limb. This was accompanied by low virus titres in the treated mice due to control of systemic virus replication and virus clearance. The balance of type I versus type II cytokines was dominated by a type I response in the treated groups. The group treated with the combination of IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha exhibited the best survival with Th1-dominant (IFN-gamma and IL-12) cytokine profiles, whereas the TNF-alpha-treated group of mice was less successful in clearance of virus and demonstrated the lowest survival rate. The successful cytokine treatment schemes in this orthopoxvirus model system may have important implications in the treatment of viral diseases in humans and, in particular, of variola virus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- A V Atrasheuskaya
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology Vector, Koltsovo, Russia.
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49
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Khan S, Zimmermann A, Basler M, Groettrup M, Hengel H. A cytomegalovirus inhibitor of gamma interferon signaling controls immunoproteasome induction. J Virol 2004; 78:1831-42. [PMID: 14747547 PMCID: PMC369451 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.78.4.1831-1842.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Both human and mouse cytomegaloviruses (HCMV and MCMV) avoid peptide presentation through the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I pathway to CD8(+) T cells. Within the MHC class I pathway, the vast majority of antigenic peptides are generated by the proteasome system, a multicatalytic protease complex consisting of constitutive subunits, three of which can be replaced by enzymatically active gamma interferon (IFN-gamma)-inducible subunits, i.e., LMP2, LMP7, and MECL1, to form the so-called immunoproteasomes. Here, we show that steady-state levels of immunoproteasomes are readily formed in response to MCMV infection in the liver. In contrast, the incorporation of immunoproteasome subunits was prevented in MCMV-infected, as well as HCMV-infected, fibroblasts in vitro. Likewise, the expression of the IFN-gamma-inducible proteasome regulator PA28 alpha beta was also impaired in MCMV-infected cells. Both MCMV and HCMV did not alter the constitutive-subunit composition of proteasomes in infected cells. Quantitative assessment of LMP2, MECL1, and LMP7 transcripts revealed that the inhibition of immunoproteasome formation occurred at a pretranscriptional level. Remarkably, a targeted deletion of the MCMV gene M27, encoding an inhibitor of STAT2 that disrupts IFN-gamma receptor signaling, largely restored transcription and protein expression of immunoproteasome subunits in infected cells. While CMV block peptide transport and MHC class I assembly by posttranslational strategies, immunoproteasome assembly, and thus the repertoire of proteasomal peptides, is controlled by pretranscriptional mechanisms. We hypothesize that the blockade of immunoproteasome formation has considerable consequences for shaping the CD8(+)-T-cell repertoire during the effector phase of the immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Selina Khan
- Research Department, Cantonal Hospital St. Gallen, CH-9007 St. Gallen, Switzerland
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50
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Asper M, Sternsdorf T, Hass M, Drosten C, Rhode A, Schmitz H, Günther S. Inhibition of different Lassa virus strains by alpha and gamma interferons and comparison with a less pathogenic arenavirus. J Virol 2004; 78:3162-9. [PMID: 14990737 PMCID: PMC353741 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.78.6.3162-3169.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2003] [Accepted: 11/10/2003] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The high pathogenicity of Lassa virus is assumed to involve resistance to the effects of interferon (IFN). We have analyzed the effects of alpha IFN (IFN-alpha), IFN-gamma, and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) on replication of Lassa virus compared to the related, but less pathogenic, lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV). Three low-passage Lassa virus strains (AV, NL, and CSF), isolated from humans with mild to fulminant Lassa fever, were tested. Lassa virus replication was inhibited by IFN-alpha and IFN-gamma, but not TNF-alpha, in Huh7 and Vero cells. The degree of IFN sensitivity of a Lassa virus isolate did not correlate with disease severity in human patients. Furthermore, cytokine effects observed for Lassa virus and LCMV (strains CH-5692, Armstrong, and WE) were similar. To address the mechanisms involved in the IFN effect, we used cell lines in which overexpression of IFN-stimulated proteins promyelocytic leukemia protein (PML) and Sp100 could be induced. Both proteins reside in PML bodies, a cellular target of the LCMV and Lassa virus Z proteins. Overexpression of PML or Sp100 did not affect replication of either virus. This, together with the previous finding that PML knockout facilitates LCMV replication in vitro and in vivo (M. Djavani, J. Rodas, I. S. Lukashevich, D. Horejsh, P. P. Pandolfi, K. L. Borden, and M. S. Salvato, J. Virol. 75:6204-6208, 2001; W. V. Bonilla, D. D. Pinschewer, P. Klenerman, V. Rousson, M. Gaboli, P. P. Pandolfi, R. M. Zinkernagel, M. S. Salvato, and H. Hengartner, J. Virol. 76:3810-3818, 2002), describes PML as a mediator within the antiviral pathway rather than as a direct effector protein. In conclusion, the high pathogenicity of Lassa virus compared to LCMV is probably not due to increased resistance to the effects of IFN-alpha or IFN-gamma. Both cytokines inhibit replication which is relevant for the design of antiviral strategies against Lassa fever with the aim of enhancing the IFN response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcel Asper
- Department of Virology, Bernhard-Nocht-Institute of Tropical Medicine, 20359 Hamburg, Germany
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